Islam

 Islam[a] is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centred on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad,[9] the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number 1.9 billion worldwide and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.[10]

Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets and messengers, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Muslims consider the Quran to be the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in previous revelations, such as the Tawrat (the Torah), the Zabur (Psalms), and the Injil (Gospel). They believe that Muhammad is the main and final of God's prophets, through whom the religion was completed. The teachings and normative examples of Muhammad, called the Sunnah, documented in accounts called the hadith, provide a constitutional model for Muslims. Islam is based on the belief in oneness and uniqueness of the God (tawhid), and belief in an afterlife (akhirah) with the Last Judgment—wherein the righteous will be rewarded in paradise (jannah) and the unrighteous will be punished in hell (jahannam). The Five Pillars, considered obligatory acts of worship, are the Islamic oath and creed (shahada), daily prayers (salah), almsgiving (zakat), fasting (sawm) in the month of Ramadan, and a pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca. Islamic law, sharia, touches on virtually every aspect of life, from banking and finance and welfare to men's and women's roles and the environment. The two main religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The three holiest sites in Islam are Masjid al-Haram in Mecca, Prophet's Mosque in Medina, and al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.

The religion of Islam originated in Mecca in 610 CE. Muslims believe this is when Muhammad received his first revelation. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. Muslim rule expanded outside Arabia under the Rashidun Caliphate and the subsequent Umayyad Caliphate ruled from the Iberian Peninsula to the Indus Valley. In the Islamic Golden Age, specifically during the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, most of the Muslim world experienced a scientific, economic and cultural flourishing. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various states and caliphates as well as extensive trade and religious conversion as a result of Islamic missionary activities (dawah), as well as through conquests, imperialism, and colonialism.

The two main Islamic branches are Sunni Islam (85–90%) and Shia Islam (10–15%). While the Shia–Sunni divide initially arose from disagreements over the succession to Muhammad, they grew to cover a broader dimension, both theologically and juridically. The Sunni canonical hadith collection consists of six books, while the Shia canonical hadith collection consists of four books. Muslims make up a majority of the population in 49 countries. Approximately 12% of the world's Muslims live in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim-majority country; 31% live in South Asia; 20% live in the Middle East–North Africa; and 15% live in sub-Saharan Africa. Muslim communities are also present in the Americas, China, and Europe. Muslims are the world's fastest-growing major religious group, according to Pew Research. This is due primarily to a higher fertility rate and younger age structure compared to other major religions.

Etymology

See also: Muslims § Etymology

In Arabic, Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. 'submission [to God]')[11][12][13] is the verbal noun of Form IV originating from the verb سلم (salama), from the triliteral root س-ل-م (S-L-M), which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of submission, safeness, and peace.[14] In a religious context, it refers to the total surrender to the will of God.[15] A Muslim (مُسْلِم), the word for a follower of Islam,[16] is the active participle of the same verb form, and means "submitter (to God)" or "one who surrenders (to God)". In the Hadith of Gabriel, Islam is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence).[17][18]

Islam itself was historically called Mohammedanism in the English-speaking world. This term has fallen out of use and is sometimes said to be offensive, as it suggests that a human being, rather than God, is central to Muslims' religion.[19]

Articles of faith

Main articles: Aqidah and Iman

The Islamic creed (aqidah) requires belief in six articles: God, angels, revelation, prophets, the Day of Resurrection, and the divine predestination.[20]

God

Calligraphy showing the word Allah in Arabic in Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey

Main article: God in Islam

The central concept of Islam is tawḥīd (Arabic: توحيد), the oneness of God. It is usually thought of as a precise monotheism, but is also panentheistic in Islamic mystical teachings.[21][22] God is seen as incomparable and without multiplicity of persons such as in the Christian Trinity, and associating multiplicity to God or attributing God's attributes to others is seen as idolatory, called shirk. God is described as Al Ghayb so is beyond comprehension. [under discussion] Thus, Muslims are not iconodules and do not attribute forms to God. God is instead described and referred to by several names or attributes, the most common being Ar-Rahmān (الرحمان) meaning "The Entirely Merciful", and Ar-Rahīm (الرحيم) meaning "The Especially Merciful" which are invoked at the beginning of most chapters of the Quran.[23][24]

Islam teaches that the creation of everything in the universe was brought into being by God's command as expressed by the wording, "Be, and it is,"[i][11] and that the purpose of existence is to worship God.[25] He is viewed as a personal god[11] and there are no intermediaries, such as clergy, to contact God. Consciousness and awareness of God is referred to as Taqwa. Allāh is a term with no plural or gender being ascribed to it and is also used by Muslims and Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews in reference to God, whereas ʾilāh (إله) is a term used for a deity or a god in general.[26]

Angels

Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. From the manuscript Jami' al-Tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, 1307.

Main article: Angels in Islam

Angels (Arabic: ملك, malak) are beings described in the Quran[27] and hadith.[28] They are described as created to worship God and also to serve in other specific duties such as communicating revelations from God, recording every person's actions, and taking a person's soul at the time of death. They are described as being created variously from 'light' (nūr)[29][30][31] or 'fire' (nār).[32][33][34][35] Islamic angels are often represented in anthropomorphic forms combined with supernatural images, such as wings, being of great size or wearing heavenly articles.[36][37][38][39] Common characteristics for angels include a lack of bodily needs and desires, such as eating and drinking.[40] Some of them, such as Gabriel (Jibrīl) and Michael (Mika'il), are mentioned by name in the Quran. Angels play a significant role in literature about the Mi'raj, where Muhammad encounters several angels during his journey through the heavens.[28] Further angels have often been featured in Islamic eschatology, theology and philosophy.[41]

Scriptures

A Quran manuscript resting on a rehal, a book rest for the holy text

Main articles: Islamic holy books, Quran, and Wahy

See also: History of the Quran

The pre-eminent holy text of Islam is the Quran. Muslims believe that the verses of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad by God, through the archangel Gabriel, on multiple occasions between 610 CE[42][43] and 632, the year Muhammad died.[44] While Muhammad was alive, these revelations were written down by his companions, although the primary method of transmission was orally through memorization.[45] The Quran is divided into 114 chapters (sūrah) which contain a combined 6,236 verses (āyāt). The chronologically earlier chapters, revealed at Mecca, are concerned primarily with spiritual topics, while the later Medinan chapters discuss more social and legal issues relevant to the Muslim community.[11][46] Muslim jurists consult the hadith ('accounts'), or the written record of Muhammad's life, to both supplement the Quran and assist with its interpretation. The science of Quranic commentary and exegesis is known as tafsir.[47][48] In addition to its religious significance, the Quran is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature,[49][50] and has influenced art and the Arabic language.[51]

Islam also holds that God has sent revelations, called wahy, to different prophets numerous times throughout history. However, Islam teaches that parts of the previously revealed scriptures, such as the Tawrat (Torah) and the Injil (Gospel), have become distorted—either in interpretation, in text, or both,[52][53][54][55] while the Quran (lit. 'Recitation') is viewed as the final, verbatim and unaltered word of God.[46][56][57][58]

Prophets

Main articles: Prophets and messengers in Islam, Sunnah, and Hadith

A 15th century[59] Persian miniature depicting Muhammad leading Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets in prayer

Prophets (Arabic: أنبياء, anbiyāʾ) are believed to have been chosen by God to preach a divine message. Some of these prophets additionally deliver a new book and are called "messengers" (رسول‎, rasūl).[60] Muslims believe prophets are human and not divine. All of the prophets are said to have preached the same basic message of Islam – submission to the will of God – to various nations in the past, and this is said to account for many similarities among religions. The Quran recounts the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others.[11][61] The stories associated with the prophets beyond the Quranic accounts are collected and explored in the Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets).

Muslims believe that God sent Muhammad as the final prophet ("Seal of the prophets") to convey the completed message of Islam.[62][63] In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the sunnah (literally "trodden path"). Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's moral behaviors in their daily lives, and the sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Quran.[64][65][66][67] This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith, which are accounts of his words, actions, and personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as God's verbatim words quoted by Muhammad that are not part of the Quran. A hadith involves two elements: a chain of narrators, called sanad, and the actual wording, called matn. There are various methodologies to classify the authenticity of hadiths, with the commonly used grading grading scale being "authentic" or "correct" (صحيح, ṣaḥīḥ); "good" (حسن, ḥasan); or "weak" (ضعيف, ḍaʻīf), among others. The Kutub al-Sittah are a collection of six books, regarded as the most authentic reports in Sunni Islam. Among them is Sahih al-Bukhari, often considered by Sunnis to be one of the most authentic sources after the Quran.[68] Another well-known source of hadiths is known as The Four Books, which Shias consider as the most authentic hadith reference.[69][70]

Resurrection and judgment

The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, where according to Islamic tradition Isa (Jesus, seen as an Islamic prophet) will appear close to the Day of Judgment

Main article: Islamic eschatology

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection" or Yawm al-Qiyāmah (Arabic: يوم القيامة) is also crucial for Muslims. It is believed that the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God, but unknown to man. The Quran and the hadith, as well as the commentaries of scholars, describe the trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah. The Quran emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.[71][72][73]

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all humankind will be judged by their good and bad deeds and consigned to Jannah (paradise) or Jahannam (hell).[74] The Quran in Surat al-Zalzalah describes this as: "So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it. And whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it." The Quran lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell. However, the Quran makes it clear that God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he wishes. Good deeds, like charity, prayer, and compassion towards animals[75] will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and blessings, with Quranic references describing its features. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.[76][77][78] Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also identified in the Quran as Yawm ad-Dīn (يوم الدين "Day of Religion");[ii] as-Sāʿah (الساعة "the Last Hour");[iii] and al-Qāriʿah (القارعة "The Clatterer").[iv]

Divine predestination

Main article: Predestination in Islam

The concept of divine predestination in Islam (Arabic: القضاء والقدر, al-qadāʾ wa l-qadar) means that every matter, good or bad, is believed to have been decreed by God. Al-qadar, meaning "power", derives from a root that means "to measure" or "calculating".[79][80][81][82] Muslims often express this belief in divine destiny with the phrase "In-sha-Allah" (Arabic: إن شاء الله) meaning "if God wills" when speaking on future events.[83]

Acts of worship

Main articles: Five Pillars of Islam and Ibadah

There are five acts of worship that are considered duties–the Shahada (declaration of faith), the five daily prayers, Zakat (almsgiving), fasting during Ramadan, and the Hajj pilgrimage–collectively known as "The Pillars of Islam" (Arkān al-Islām).[84] In addition, Muslims also perform other optional supererogatory acts that are encouraged but not considered to be duties.[85]

Declaration of faith

Silver coin of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, c. 16th century, inscribed with the Shahadah

Main article: Shahada

The shahadah[86] is an oath declaring belief in Islam. The expanded statement is "ʾašhadu ʾal-lā ʾilāha ʾillā-llāhu wa ʾašhadu ʾanna muħammadan rasūlu-llāh" (أشهد أن لا إله إلا الله وأشهد أن محمداً رسول الله), or, "I testify that there is no deity except God and I testify that Muhammad is the messenger of God."[87] Islam is sometimes argued to have a very simple creed with the shahada being the premise for the rest of the religion. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the shahada in front of witnesses.[88][89]

Prayer

Main article: Salah

See also: Mosque and Jumu'ah

Muslim men prostrating in prayer, at the Umayyad Mosque, Damascus

Prayer in Islam, called as-salah or aṣ-ṣalāt (Arabic: الصلاة), is seen as a personal communication with God and consists of repeating units called rakat that include bowing and prostrating to God. There are five timed prayers each day that are considered duties. The prayers are recited in the Arabic language and performed in the direction of the Kaaba. The act also requires a state of ritual purity achieved by means of either a routine wudu ritual wash or, in certain circumstances, a ghusl full body ritual wash.[90][91][92][93]

A mosque is a place of worship for Muslims, who often refer to it by its Arabic name masjid. Although the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place of prayer, it is also an important social centre for the Muslim community. For example, the Masjid an-Nabawi ("Prophetic Mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, used to also serve as a shelter for the poor.[94] Minarets are towers used to call the adhan, a vocal call to signal the prayer time.[95][96]

Almsgiving

Main article: Zakat

See also: Sadaqah

A slot for giving zakat at the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II in Fez, Morocco

Zakat (Arabic: زكاة, zakāh), also spelled Zakāt or Zakah, is a type of almsgiving characterized by the giving of a fixed portion (2.5% annually)[97] of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, such as for freeing captives, those in debt, or for (stranded) travellers, and for those employed to collect zakat. It acts as a form of welfare in Muslim societies.[98] It is considered a religious obligation that the well-off owe the needy because their wealth is seen as a trust from God's bounty,[99] and is seen as a purification of one's excess wealth.[100] The total annual value contributed due to zakat is 15 times greater than global humanitarian aid donations, using conservative estimates.[101] Sadaqah, as opposed to Zakat, is a much-encouraged optional charity.[102][103] A waqf is a perpetual charitable trust, which finances hospitals and schools in Muslim societies.[104]

Fasting

A fast-breaking feast, known as Iftar, is served traditionally with dates.

Main article: Fasting in Islam

See also: Fasting during Ramadan

In Islam, fasting (Arabic: صوم, ṣawm) precludes food and drink, as well as other forms of consumption, such as smoking, and is performed from dawn to sunset. During the month of Ramadan, it is considered a duty for Muslims to fast.[105] The fast is to encourage a feeling of nearness to God by restraining oneself for God's sake from what is otherwise permissible and to think of the needy. In addition, there are other days, such as the Day of Arafah, when fasting is optional.[106]

Pilgrimage

Main articles: Hajj and Umrah

See also: Holiest sites in Islam

Pilgrims at the Great Mosque of Mecca during the Hajj season

The Islamic pilgrimage, called the ḥajj (Arabic: حج), is to be done at least once a lifetime by every Muslim with the means to do so during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah. Rituals of the Hajj mostly imitate the story of the family of Abraham. In Mecca, pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaaba, which Muslims believe Abraham built as a place of worship, and they walk seven times between Mount Safa and Marwa, recounting the steps of Abraham's wife, Hagar, who was looking for water for her baby Ishmael in the desert before Mecca developed into a settlement.[107][108][109] The pilgrimage also involves spending a day praying and worshipping in the plain of Mount Arafat as well as symbolically stoning the Devil.[110] All Muslim men wear only two simple white unstitched pieces of cloth called ihram, intended to bring continuity through generations and uniformity among pilgrims despite class or origin.[111][112] Another form of pilgrimage, Umrah, is optional and can be undertaken at any time of the year. Other sites of Islamic pilgrimage are Medina, where Muhammad died, as well as Jerusalem, a city of many Islamic prophets and the site of Al-Aqsa, which was the direction of prayer before Mecca.[113][114]

Other acts of worship

Muslim men reading the Quran

See also: Quran § Recitation, Dua, and Dhikr

Muslims recite and memorize the whole or parts of the Quran as acts of virtue. Tajwid refers to the set of rules for the proper elocution of the Quran.[115] Many Muslims recite the whole Quran during the month of Ramadan.[116] One who has memorized the whole Quran is called a hafiz ("memorizer"), and hadiths mention that these individuals will be able to intercede for others on Judgment Day.[117]

Supplication to God, called in Arabic duʿāʾ (Arabic: دعاء IPA: [dʊˈʕæːʔ]) has its own etiquette such as raising hands as if begging.[118]

Al-Ikhlas

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Sincerity is the Quran's 112th chapter as recited by Imam Mishary Rashid Alafasy

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Remembrance of God (ذكر, Dhikr') refers to phrases repeated referencing God. Commonly, this includes Tahmid, declaring praise be due to God (الحمد لله, al-Ḥamdu lillāh) during prayer or when feeling thankful, Tasbih, declaring glory to God during prayer or when in awe of something and saying 'in the name of God' (بسملة, basmalah) before starting an act such as eating.[119]

History

Main article: History of Islam

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the history of Islam.

See also: List of Muslim empires and dynasties

A panoramic view of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina, Hejaz region, today's Saudi Arabia, the second most sacred mosque in Islam

Muhammad and the beginning of Islam (570–632)

Main articles: Muhammad and Muhammad in Islam

See also: Early social changes under Islam

Cave of Hira

According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570 CE and was orphaned early in life. Growing up as a trader, he became known as the "trusted one" (Arabic: الامين) and was sought after as an impartial arbitrator. He later married his employer, the businesswoman Khadija.[120] In the year 610 CE, troubled by the moral decline and idolatry prevalent in Mecca and seeking seclusion and spiritual contemplation, Muhammad retreated to the Cave of Hira in the mountain Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca. It was during his time in the cave that he is said to have received the first revelation of the Quran from the angel Gabriel.[121] The event of Muhammad's retreat to the cave and subsequent revelation is known as the "Night of Power" (Laylat al-Qadr) and is considered a significant event in Islamic history. During the next 22 years of his life, from age 40 onwards, Muhammad continued to receive revelations from God, becoming the last or seal of the prophets sent to mankind.[52][53][122]

"Muhammad at the Ka'ba" from the Siyer-i Nebi.[123] Muhammad is shown with veiled face, c. 1595.

During this time, while in Mecca, Muhammad preached first in secret and then in public, imploring his listeners to abandon polytheism and worship one God. Many early converts to Islam were women, the poor, foreigners, and slaves like the first muezzin Bilal ibn Rabah al-Habashi.[124] The Meccan elite felt Muhammad was destabilizing their social order by preaching about one God and giving questionable ideas to the poor and slaves because they profited from the pilgrimages to the idols of the Kaaba.[125][126]

After 12 years of the persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and his companions performed the Hijra ("emigration") in 622 to the city of Yathrib (current-day Medina). There, with the Medinan converts (the Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (the Muhajirun), Muhammad in Medina established his political and religious authority. The Constitution of Medina was signed by all the tribes of Medina. This established religious freedoms and freedom to use their own laws among the Muslim and non-Muslim communities as well as an agreement to defend Medina from external threats.[127] Meccan forces and their allies lost against the Muslims at the Battle of Badr in 624 and then fought an inconclusive battle in the Battle of Uhud[128] before unsuccessfully besieging Medina in the Battle of the Trench (March–April 627). In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims, but it was broken by Mecca two years later. As more tribes converted to Islam, Meccan trade routes were cut off by the Muslims.[129][130] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at age 62) he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.[131][42]

Early Islamic period (632–750)

Further information: Succession to Muhammad and Early Muslim conquests

See also: Event of Ghadir Khumm and Saqifa

Expansion of Rashidun Caliphate

Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem built by caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan; completed at the end of the Second Fitna

Muhammad died in 632 and the first successors, called Caliphs – Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and sometimes Hasan ibn Ali[132] – are known in Sunni Islam as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs").[133] Some tribes left Islam and rebelled under leaders who declared themselves new prophets but were crushed by Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars.[134][135][136][137][138] Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and heretics and taxed heavily, often helped Muslims take over their lands,[139] resulting in rapid expansion of the caliphate into the Persian and Byzantine empires.[140][141][142][143] Uthman was elected in 644 and his assassination by rebels led to Ali being elected the next Caliph. In the First Civil War, Muhammad's widow, Aisha, raised an army against Ali, attempting to avenge the death of Uthman, but was defeated at the Battle of the Camel. Ali attempted to remove the governor of Syria, Mu'awiya, who was seen as corrupt. Mu'awiya then declared war on Ali and was defeated in the Battle of Siffin. Ali's decision to arbitrate angered the Kharijites, an extremist sect, who felt that by not fighting a sinner, Ali became a sinner as well. The Kharijites rebelled and were defeated in the Battle of Nahrawan but a Kharijite assassin later killed Ali. Ali's son, Hasan ibn Ali, was elected Caliph and signed a peace treaty to avoid further fighting, abdicating to Mu'awiya in return for Mu'awiya not appointing a successor.[144] Mu'awiya began the Umayyad dynasty with the appointment of his son Yazid I as successor, sparking the Second Civil War. During the Battle of Karbala, Husayn ibn Ali was killed by Yazid's forces; the event has been annually commemorated by Shias ever since. Sunnis, led by Ibn al-Zubayr and opposed to a dynastic caliphate, were defeated in the siege of Mecca. These disputes over leadership would give rise to the Sunni-Shia schism,[145] with the Shia believing leadership belongs to Muhammad's family through Ali, called the ahl al-bayt.[146] Abu Bakr's leadership oversaw the beginning of the compilation of the Quran. The Caliph Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz set up the committee, The Seven Fuqaha of Medina,[147][148] and Malik ibn Anas wrote one of the earliest books on Islamic jurisprudence, the Muwatta, as a consensus of the opinion of those jurists.[149][150][151] The Kharijites believed there was no compromised middle ground between good and evil, and any Muslim who committed a grave sin would become an unbeliever. The term "kharijites" would also be used to refer to later groups such as ISIS.[152] The Murji'ah taught that people's righteousness could be judged by God alone. Therefore, wrongdoers might be considered misguided, but not denounced as unbelievers.[153] This attitude came to prevail into mainstream Islamic beliefs.[154]

The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghreb, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[155] The Umayyads struggled with a lack of legitimacy and relied on a heavily patronized military.[156] Since the jizya tax was a tax paid by non-Muslims which exempted them from military service, the Umayyads denied recognizing the conversion of non-Arabs, as it reduced revenue.[154] While the Rashidun Caliphate emphasized austerity, with Umar even requiring an inventory of each official's possessions,[157] Umayyad luxury bred dissatisfaction among the pious.[154] The Kharijites led the Berber Revolt, leading to the first Muslim states independent of the Caliphate. In the Abbasid Revolution, non-Arab converts (mawali), Arab clans pushed aside by the Umayyad clan, and some Shi'a rallied and overthrew the Umayyads, inaugurating the more cosmopolitan Abbasid dynasty in 750.[158][159]

Classical era (750–1258)

Further information: Hadith studies and Islamic philosophy

See also: Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe and Turco-Persian tradition

Al-Shafi'i codified a method to determine the reliability of hadith.[160] During the early Abbasid era, scholars such as Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj compiled the major Sunni hadith collections while scholars like Al-Kulayni and Ibn Babawayh compiled major Shia hadith collections. The four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i. In contrast, the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq formed the Ja'fari jurisprudence. In the 9th century, Al-Tabari completed the first commentary of the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari, which became one of the most cited commentaries in Sunni Islam. Some Muslims began questioning the piety of indulgence in worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility, and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri inspired a movement that would evolve into tasawwuf or Sufism.[161][162]

At this time, theological problems, notably on free will, were prominently tackled, with Hasan al Basri holding that although God knows people's actions, good and evil come from abuse of free will and the devil.[163][b] Greek rationalist philosophy influenced a speculative school of thought known as Muʿtazila, who famously advocated the notion of free-will originated by Wasil ibn Ata.[165] Caliph Mamun al Rashid made it an official creed and unsuccessfully attempted to force this position on the majority.[166] Caliph Al-Mu'tasim carried out inquisitions, with the traditionalist Ahmad ibn Hanbal notably refusing to conform to the Muʿtazila idea that the Quran was created rather than being eternal, which resulted in him being tortured and kept in an unlit prison cell for nearly thirty months.[167] However, other schools of speculative theology – Māturīdism founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi and Ash'ari founded by Al-Ash'ari – were more successful in being widely adopted. Philosophers such as Al-Farabi, Avicenna and Averroes sought to harmonize Aristotle's ideas with the teachings of Islam, similar to later scholasticism within Christianity in Europe and Maimonides' work within Judaism, while others like Al-Ghazali argued against such syncretism and ultimately prevailed.[168][169]

The eye, according to Hunain ibn Ishaq from a manuscript dated c. 1200

This era is sometimes called the "Islamic Golden Age".[170][171][172][173][141] Islamic scientific achievements spanned a wide range of subject areas including medicine, mathematics, astronomy, and agriculture as well as physics, economics, engineering and optics.[174][175][176][177] Avicenna was a pioneer in experimental medicine,[178][179] and his The Canon of Medicine was used as a standard medicinal text in the Islamic world and Europe for centuries. Rhazes was the first to identify the diseases smallpox and measles.[180] Public hospitals of the time issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors.[181][182] Ibn al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world's first true scientist", in particular regarding his work in optics.[183][184][185] In engineering, the Banū Mūsā brothers' automatic flute player is considered to have been the first programmable machine.[186] In mathematics, the concept of the algorithm is named after Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who is considered a founder of algebra, which is named after his book al-jabr, while others developed the concept of a function.[187] The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today.[188] Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university.[189] Many non-Muslims, such as Christians, Jews and Sabians,[190] contributed to the Islamic civilization in various fields,[191][192] and the institution known as the House of Wisdom employed Christian and Persian scholars to both translate works into Arabic and to develop new knowledge.[193][190][194]

Soldiers broke away from the Abbasid empire and established their own dynasties, such as the Tulunids in 868 in Egypt[195] and the Ghaznavid dynasty in 977 in Central Asia.[196] In this fragmentation came the Shi'a Century, roughly between 945 and 1055, which saw the rise of the millennialist Isma'ili Shi'a missionary movement. One Isma'ili group, the Fatimid dynasty, took control of North Africa in the 10th century[197] and another Isma'ili group, the Qarmatians, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone, a rock placed within the Kaaba, in their unsuccessful rebellion.[198] Yet another Isma'ili group, the Buyid dynasty, conquered Baghdad and turned the Abbasids into a figurehead monarchy. The Sunni Seljuk dynasty campaigned to reassert Sunni Islam by promulgating the scholarly opinions of the time, notably with the construction of educational institutions known as Nezamiyeh, which are associated with Al-Ghazali and Saadi Shirazi.[199]

The expansion of the Muslim world continued with religious missions converting Volga Bulgaria to Islam. The Delhi Sultanate reached deep into the Indian Subcontinent and many converted to Islam,[200] in particular low-caste Hindus whose descendants make up the vast majority of Indian Muslims.[201] Trade brought many Muslims to China, where they virtually dominated the import and export industry of the Song dynasty.[202] Muslims were recruited as a governing minority class in the Yuan dynasty.[203]

Pre-modern era (1258 – 18th century)

Further information: Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam

Ghazan Khan, 7th Ilkhanate ruler of the Mongol Empire, converts to Islam. 14th-century depiction

Through Muslim trade networks and the activity of Sufi orders,[204] Islam spread into new areas[205] and Muslims assimilated into new cultures.

Under the Ottoman Empire, Islam spread to Southeast Europe.[206] Conversion to Islam often involved a degree of syncretism,[207] as illustrated by Muhammad's appearance in Hindu folklore.[208] Muslim Turks incorporated elements of Turkish Shamanism beliefs to Islam.[c][210] Muslims in Ming Dynasty China who were descended from earlier immigrants were assimilated, sometimes through laws mandating assimilation,[211] by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important centre of Islamic study.[212][213]

Cultural shifts were evident with the decrease in Arab influence after the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate.[214] The Muslim Mongol Khanates in Iran and Central Asia benefited from increased cross-cultural access to East Asia under Mongol rule and thus flourished and developed more distinctively from Arab influence, such as the Timurid Renaissance under the Timurid dynasty.[215] Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) proposed the mathematical model that was later argued to be adopted by Copernicus unrevised in his heliocentric model,[216] and Jamshīd al-Kāshī's estimate of pi would not be surpassed for 180 years.[217]

After the introduction of gunpowder weapons, large and centralized Muslim states consolidated around gunpowder empires, these had been previously splintered amongst various territories. The caliphate was claimed by the Ottoman dynasty of the Ottoman Empire and its claims were strengthened in 1517 as Selim I became the ruler of Mecca and Medina.[218] The Shia Safavid dynasty rose to power in 1501 and later conquered all of Iran.[219] In South Asia, Babur founded the Mughal Empire.[220]

The religion of the centralized states of the gunpowder empires influenced the religious practice of their constituent populations. A symbiosis between Ottoman rulers and Sufism strongly influenced Islamic reign by the Ottomans from the beginning. The Mevlevi Order and Bektashi Order had a close relation to the sultans,[221] as Sufi-mystical as well as heterodox and syncretic approaches to Islam flourished.[222] The often forceful Safavid conversion of Iran to the Twelver Shia Islam of the Safavid Empire ensured the final dominance of the Twelver sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia, as influential bureaucrats and landholders, helped spread Shia Islam, forming some of the largest Shia populations outside Iran.[223] Nader Shah, who overthrew the Safavids, attempted to improve relations with Sunnis by propagating the integration of Twelverism into Sunni Islam as a fifth madhhab, called Ja'farism,[224] which failed to gain recognition from the Ottomans.[225]

Modern era (18th–20th centuries)

Abdülmecid II was the last Caliph of Islam from the Ottoman dynasty.

Earlier in the 14th century, Ibn Taymiyya promoted a puritanical form of Islam,[226] rejecting philosophical approaches in favour of simpler theology,[226] and called to open the gates of itjihad rather than blind imitation of scholars.[227] He called for a jihad against those he deemed heretics,[228] but his writings only played a marginal role during his lifetime.[229] During the 18th century in Arabia, Muhammad ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab, influenced by the works of Ibn Taymiyya and Ibn al-Qayyim, founded a movement called Wahhabi to return to what he saw as unadultered Islam.[230][231] He condemned many local Islamic customs, such as visiting the grave of Muhammad or saints, as later innovations and sinful[231][232] and destroyed sacred rocks and trees, Sufi shrines, the tombs of Muhammad and his companions and the tomb of Husayn at Karbala, a major Shia pilgrimage site.[232][233][234] He formed an alliance with the Saud family, which, by the 1920s, completed their conquest of the area that would become Saudi Arabia.[232][235] Ma Wanfu and Ma Debao promoted salafist movements in the 19th century such as Sailaifengye in China after returning from Mecca but were eventually persecuted and forced into hiding by Sufi groups.[236] Other groups sought to reform Sufism rather than reject it, with the Senusiyya and Muhammad Ahmad both waging war and establishing states in Libya and Sudan respectively.[237] In India, Shah Waliullah Dehlawi attempted a more conciliatory style against Sufism and influenced the Deobandi movement.[238] In response to the Deobandi movement, the Barelwi movement was founded as a mass movement, defending popular Sufism and reforming its practices.[239][240]

The Muslim world was generally in political decline starting the 1800s, especially compared to non-Muslim European powers. Earlier, in the 15th century, the Reconquista succeeded in ending the Muslim presence in Iberia. By the 19th century, the British East India Company had formally annexed the Mughal dynasty in India.[241] As a response to Western Imperialism, many intellectuals sought to reform Islam.[242] Islamic modernism, initially labelled by Western scholars as Salafiyya, embraced modern values and institutions such as democracy while being scripture oriented. Notable forerunners in the movement include Muhammad 'Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani.[243] Abul A'la Maududi helped influence modern political Islam.[244][245] Similar to contemporary codification, sharia was for the first time partially codified into law in 1869 in the Ottoman Empire's Mecelle code.[246]

The Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished in 1924[247] and the subsequent Sharifian Caliphate fell quickly,[248][249][250] thus leaving Islam without a Caliph.[250] Pan-Islamists attempted to unify Muslims and competed with growing nationalist forces, such as pan-Arabism.[251][252] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim-majority countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.[253]

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants (mostly from India and Indonesia) to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas.[254] Migration from Syria and Lebanon contributed to the Muslim population in Latin America.[255] The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith,[256] likely doubling its Muslim population between 1869 and 1914.[257]

Contemporary era (20th century–present)

Leaders of Muslim countries during session of the Islamic Summit Conference in Istanbul, Turkey

Forerunners of Islamic modernism influenced Islamist political movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood and related parties in the Arab world,[258][259] which performed well in elections following the Arab Spring,[260] Jamaat-e-Islami in South Asia and the AK Party, which has democratically been in power in Turkey for decades. In Iran, revolution replaced a secular monarchy with an Islamic state. Others such as Sayyid Rashid Rida broke away from Islamic modernists[261] and pushed against embracing what he saw as Western influence.[262] The group Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant would even attempt to recreate the modern gold dinar as their monetary system. While some of those who broke away were quietist, others believed in violence against those opposing them, even against other Muslims.[263]

In opposition to Islamic political movements, in 20th century Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments, and headscarves were legally restricted, as also happened in Tunisia.[264][265] In other places, religious authority was co-opted and is now often seen as puppets of the state. For example, in Saudi Arabia, the state monopolized religious scholarship[266] and, in Egypt, the state nationalized Al-Azhar University, previously an independent voice checking state power.[267] Salafism was funded in the Middle East for its quietism.[268] Saudi Arabia campaigned against revolutionary Islamist movements in the Middle East, in opposition to Iran.[269]

Muslim minorities of various ethnicities have been persecuted as a religious group.[270] This has been undertaken by communist forces like the Khmer Rouge, who viewed them as their primary enemy to be exterminated since their religious practice made them stand out from the rest of the population,[271] the Chinese Communist Party in Xinjiang[272] and by nationalist forces such as during the Bosnian genocide.[273] Myanmar military's Tatmadaw targeting of Rohingya Muslims has been labeled as a crime against humanity by the UN and Amnesty International,[274][275] while the OHCHR Fact-Finding Mission identified genocide, ethnic cleansing, and other crimes against humanity.[276]

The advancement of global communication has facilitated the widespread dissemination of religious knowledge. The adoption of the hijab has grown more common[277] and some Muslim intellectuals are increasingly striving to separate scriptural Islamic beliefs from cultural traditions.[278] Among other groups, this access to information has led to the rise of popular "televangelist" preachers, such as Amr Khaled, who compete with the traditional ulema in their reach and have decentralized religious authority.[279][280] More "individualized" interpretations of Islam[281] notably involve Liberal Muslims who attempt to align religious traditions with contemporary secular governance,[282][283] an approach that has been criticized by some regarding its compatibility.[284][285] Moreover, secularism is perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites,[286] and is frequently understood to be equivalent to anti-religion.[287]

Demographics

Main articles: Muslim world and Ummah

See also: Islam by country and Muslim population growth

World percentage of Muslims by country

As of 2020, about 24% of the global population, or about 1.9 billion people, are Muslims.[7][10][288][289][290][291] In 1900, this estimate was 12.3%,[292] in 1990 it was 19.9%[256] and projections suggest the proportion will be 29.7% by 2050.[293] Pew Research estimates that 87–90% of Muslims are Sunni and 10–13% are Shia.[294] Approximately 49 countries are Muslim-majority,[295][296][297][298][299][300] with 62% of the world's Muslims living in Asia, and 683 million adherents in Indonesia,[301] Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh alone.[302][303][304] Arab Muslims form the largest ethnic group among Muslims in the world,[305] followed by Bengalis[306][307] and Punjabis.[308] Most estimates indicate China has approximately 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[309][310] Islam in Europe is the second-largest religion after Christianity in many countries, with growth rates due primarily to immigration and higher birth rates of Muslims in 2005,[311] accounting for 4.9% of all of Europe's population in 2016.[312]

Religious conversion has no net impact on the Muslim population growth as "the number of people who become Muslims through conversion seems to be roughly equal to the number of Muslims who leave the faith."[313] Although, Islam is expected to experience a modest gain of 3 million through religious conversion between 2010 and 2050, mostly from Sub Saharan Africa (2.9 million).[314][315]

According to a report by CNN, "Islam has drawn converts from all walks of life, most notably African-Americans".[316] In Britain, around 6,000 people convert to Islam per year and, according to an article in the British Muslims Monthly Survey, the majority of new Muslim converts in Britain were women.[317] According to The Huffington Post, "observers estimate that as many as 20,000 Americans convert to Islam annually", most of them being women and African-Americans.[318][319]

By both percentage and total numbers, Islam is the world's fastest growing major religious group, and is projected to be the world's largest by the end of the 21st century, surpassing that of Christianity.[320][293] It is estimated that, by 2050, the number of Muslims will nearly equal the number of Christians around the world, "due to the young age and high fertility rate of Muslims relative to other religious groups."[293]

Main branches or denominations

Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Main branches or denominations

See also: Shia–Sunni relations

Sunni

Main article: Sunni Islam

The nine volumes of Sahih Al-Bukhari, one of the six Sunni hadith books

Sunni Islam, or Sunnism, is the name for the largest denomination in Islam.[321][322][323] The term is a contraction of the phrase "ahl as-sunna wa'l-jamaat", which means "people of the sunna (the traditions of Muhammad) and the community".[324] Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "orthodox Islam",[325][326][327] though some scholars view this as inappropriate, and many non-Sunnis may find this offensive.[328] Sunnis, or sometimes Sunnites, believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad and primarily reference six major hadith works for legal matters, while following one of the four traditional schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki or Shafi'i.[329][330]

Traditionalist theology is a Sunni school of thought, prominently advocated by Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855 CE), that is characterized by its adherence to a textualist understanding of the Quran and the sunnah, the belief that the Quran is uncreated and eternal, and opposition to speculative theology, called kalam, in religious and ethical matters.[331] Mu'tazilism is a Sunni school of thought inspired by Ancient Greek Philosophy. Maturidism, founded by Abu Mansur al-Maturidi (853–944 CE), asserts that scripture is not needed for basic ethics and that good and evil can be understood by reason alone,[332] but people rely on revelation, for matters beyond human's comprehension. Ash'arism, founded by Al-Ashʿarī (c. 874–936), holds that ethics can derive just from divine revelation but accepts reason regarding exegetical matters and combines Muʿtazila approaches with traditionalist ideas.[333]

Salafism is a revival movement advocating the return to the practices of the earliest generations of Muslims. In the 18th century, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab led a Salafi movement, referred by outsiders as Wahhabism, in modern-day Saudi Arabia.[334] A similar movement called Ahl al-Hadith also de-emphasized the centuries' old Sunni legal tradition, preferring to directly follow the Quran and Hadith. The Nurcu Sunni movement was by Said Nursi (1877–1960);[335] it incorporates elements of Sufism and science.[335][336]

Shia

Main article: Shia Islam

Nahj al-balagha, collection of sermons, letters, and sayings attributed to Imam Ali.

Shia Islam, or Shi'ism, is the second-largest Muslim denomination.[337][338][294] Shias, or Shiites, maintain that Muhammad's successor as leader, must be from certain descendants of Muhammad's family known as the Ahl al-Bayt and those leaders, referred to as Imams, have additional spiritual authority.[339][340] Shias are guided by the Ja'fari school of jurisprudence.[341]

According to both Sunni and Shia Muslims, a significant event took place at Ghadir Khumm during Muhammad's return from his final pilgrimage to Mecca, where he stopped thousands of Muslims in the midday heat.[342] Muhammad appointed his cousin Ali as the executor of his last will and testament, as well as his Wali (authority).[343][344] Shias recognize that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor (khalīfa) and Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims because of some other companions who selected Abū Bakr as caliph.[345] Sunnis, instead believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr to be the first rightful caliph after Muhammad.[346] Shias state the community deliberately ignored Ali's nomination,[347] citing Umar's appointment by Abu Bakr,[348] other historical evidence,[349] and the Qur'an's stance that majority does not imply legitimacy.[350]

Some of the first Shia Imams are revered by all Shia and Sunnis Muslims, such as Ali and Husayn.[351] Twelvers, the largest Shia branch and most influential, believe in Twelve Imams, the last of whom went into occultation to return one day. They recognize that the prophecy of the Twelve Imams has been foretold in the Hadith of the Twelve Successors which is recorded by both Sunni and Shia sources.[352] Zaidism rejects special powers of Imams and are sometimes considered a 'fifth school' of Sunni Islam rather than a Shia denomination.[353][354] They differed with other Shias over the status of the fifth imam and are sometimes known as "Fivers".[355] The Isma'ilis split with the Twelvers over who was the seventh Imam and have further fragmented into more groups over the status of successive Imams, with the largest group being the Nizaris.[356]

For Shias, the Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala, and the Fatima Masumeh Shrine in Qom are also among the Islamic Holy sites.[357]

Imam Ali Shrine in Najaf, the third holiest place for Shia Muslims after Mecca and Medina.

Imam Hussein Shrine in Karbala, a holy site for Shia Muslims.

Imam Reza shrine, the world's largest mosque, in Mashhad, Iran. 25 million Shias visiting the shrine each year.

Muhakkima

Main articles: Muhakkima, Ibadi Islam, and Kharijites

Ibadi Islam or Ibadism is practised by 1.45 million Muslims around the world (~0.08% of all Muslims), most of them in Oman.[358] Ibadism is often associated with and viewed as a moderate variation of the kharijites, though Ibadis themselves object to this classification. The kharijites were groups that rebelled against Caliph Ali for his acceptance of arbitration with someone they viewed as a sinner. Unlike most kharijite groups, Ibadism does not regard sinful Muslims as unbelievers. Ibadi hadiths, such as the Jami Sahih collection, use chains of narrators from early Islamic history they consider trustworthy, but most Ibadi hadiths are also found in standard Sunni collections and contemporary Ibadis often approve of the standard Sunni collections.[359]

An overview of the major sects and madhahib of Islam

Other denominations

The Ahmadiyya Movement was founded in British India in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, who claimed to be the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ"), the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims as well as a "subordinate" prophet to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[360][361] There are a wide variety of distinct beliefs and teachings of Ahmadis compared to those of most other Muslims,[360][362][363][361] which include the interpretation of the Quranic title Khatam an-Nabiyyin[364] and interpretation of the Messiah's Second Coming.[362][365] These perceived deviations from normative Islamic thought have resulted in rejection by most Muslims as heretics[366] and persecution of Ahmadis in various countries,[362] particularly Pakistan,[362][367] where they have been officially declared as non-Muslims by the Government of Pakistan.[368] The followers of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam are divided into two groups: the first being the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, currently the dominant group, and the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam.[362]

Alevism is a syncretic and heterodox local Islamic tradition, whose adherents follow the mystical (bāṭenī) teachings of Ali and Haji Bektash Veli.[369] Alevism is a blend of traditional 14th century Turkish beliefs,[370] with possible syncretist origins in Shamanism and Animism, alongside Shia and Sufi beliefs. It has been estimated that there are 10 million to over 20 million (~0.5–1% of all Muslims) Alevis worldwide.[371]

Quranism is a religious movement of Islam based on the belief that Islamic law and guidance should only be based on the Quran and not the sunnah or Hadith,[372] with Quranists notably differing in their approach to the five pillars of Islam.[373] The movement developed from the 19th century onwards, with thinkers like Syed Ahmad Khan, Abdullah Chakralawi and Ghulam Ahmed Perwez in India questioning the hadith tradition.[374] In Egypt, Muhammad Tawfiq Sidqi penned the article Islam is the Quran alone in the magazine Al-Manār, arguing for the sole authority of the Quran.[375] A prominent late 20th century Quranist was Rashad Khalifa, an Egyptian-American biochemist who claimed to have discovered a numerological code in the Quran, and founded the Quranist organization United Submitters International.[376]

Non-denominational Muslims

Main article: Non-denominational Muslim

Non-denominational Muslims is an umbrella term that has been used for and by Muslims who do not belong to or do not self-identify with a specific Islamic denomination.[377][378] Recent surveys report that large proportions of Muslims in some parts of the world self-identify as "just Muslim", although there is little published analysis available regarding the motivations underlying this response.[379][380][381] Pew Research reports that respondents self-identifying as "just Muslim" make up a majority of Muslims in seven countries (and a plurality in three others), with the highest proportion in Kazakhstan at 74%. At least one in five Muslims in at least 22 countries self-identifies in this way.[382]

Mysticism

Main article: Sufism

See also: Sufi–Salafi relations

The Whirling Dervishes, or Mevlevi Order by the tomb of Sufi-mystic Rumi

Sufism in Konya, Turkey

Sufism (Arabic: تصوف, tasawwuf), is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find a direct personal experience of God. Classical Sufi scholars defined tasawwuf as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God", through "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use.[383][384][385][386] Ahmad ibn Ajiba defined tasawwuf as "a return to the tradition, and its beginning is knowledge, its middle is action [upon that knowledge], and its end is a gift [from Allah]."[387] It is not a sect of Islam, and its adherents belong to the various Muslim denominations. Isma'ilism, whose teachings are rooted in Gnosticism and Neoplatonism[388] as well as by the Illuminationist and Isfahan schools of Islamic philosophy, has developed mystical interpretations of Islam.[389] Hasan al-Basri, the early Sufi ascetic often portrayed as one of the earliest Sufis,[390] emphasized fear of failing God's expectations of obedience. In contrast, later prominent Sufis, such as Mansur Al-Hallaj and Jalaluddin Rumi, emphasized religiosity based on love towards God. Such devotion would also have an impact on the arts, with Rumi still one of the bestselling poets in America.[391][392]

Sufis see tasawwuf as an inseparable part of Islam.[393] Traditional Sufis, such as Bayazid Bastami, Jalaluddin Rumi, Haji Bektash Veli, Junaid Baghdadi, and Al-Ghazali, argued for Sufism as being based upon the tenets of Islam and the teachings of the prophet.[394][393] Historian Nile Green argued that Islam in the Medieval period was more or less Sufism.[395] Followers of the Sunni revivalist movement known as Salafism have viewed popular devotional practices, such as the veneration of Sufi saints, as innovations from the original religion. Salafists have sometimes physically attacked Sufis, leading to a deterioration in Sufi–Salafi relations.[396]

Sufi congregations form orders (tariqa) centred around a teacher (wali) who traces a spiritual chain back to Muhammad.[397] Sufis played an important role in the formation of Muslim societies through their missionary and educational activities.[161] The Sufism-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement or Barelvi movement claims over 200 million followers in South Asia.[398][399][400] Sufism is prominent in Central Asia,[401][402] as well as in African countries like Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Senegal, Chad and Niger.[382][403]

Law and jurisprudence

Main articles: Sharia and Fiqh

See also: Logic in Islamic philosophy § Islamic law and theology

Islamic schools of law in the Muslim world

Shariah is the body of Islamic religious law.[329][404] The desire to delineate and discover laws in a comprehensive and consistent method led to the development of the theory of law, called fiqh.[405][406] Conversely, bid'ah is used to refer to unlawful innovations in matters of religion.[407] Differing methodologies, called principles of fiqh or Usul al-fiqh, have developed and a school of jurisprudence arising around a methodology is known as a madhhab (Arabic: مذهب). The conformity in following of decisions by a religious expert or school is called taqlid. The term ghair muqallid refers to those who do not use taqlid and, by extension, do not have a madhab.[408] The practice of an individual interpreting law with independent reasoning is called ijtihad.[409][410] Those who interpret shariah are known as muftis and their legal opinions are called fatwas.[410][406]

The primary sources of Shariah are the Quran and Sunnah.[411] A common third source is qiyas (analogical reasoning) which is used for legal questions not dealt with literally in the Qur’ān or Sunnah. Parallels would be searched for to find the ‘’illah’’, or effective cause, which is the reason behind the existing ruling.[412] For example, from the specific prohibition of wine is deduced a broad prohibition on alcohol as they share the operative cause identified as the mind-altering nature of all alcoholic drinks.[413][414] The Zahiri school adheres to strict literalism and thus rejects qiyas. Consensus of opinion is ijma, while ikhtilaf refers to scholarly disagreement. Rulings assign actions to one of five categories called ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram).[410][406]

In the modern era, sharia-based criminal laws were widely replaced by statutes inspired by European models.[406] The Ottoman Empire's 19th century Tanzimat reforms led to the Mecelle civil code and represented the first attempt to codify sharia.[246] While the constitutions of most Muslim-majority states contain references to sharia, its classical rules were largely retained only in personal status (family) laws.[406] Legislative bodies which codified these laws sought to modernize them without abandoning their foundations in traditional jurisprudence.[406][415] The Islamic revival of the late 20th century brought along calls by Islamist movements for complete implementation of sharia.[406][415] The role of sharia has become a contested topic around the world. There are ongoing debates as to whether sharia is compatible with secular forms of government, human rights, freedom of thought, and women's rights.[416][417]

Society

Religious personages

Main article: Ulama

Crimean Tatar Muslim students (1856)

Islam has no clergy in the sacerdotal sense, such as priests who mediate between God and people. Imam (إمام) is the religious title used to refer to an Islamic leadership position, often in the context of conducting an Islamic worship service.[418] Religious interpretation is presided over by the 'ulama (Arabic: علماء), a term used describe the body of Muslim scholars who have received training in Islamic studies. A scholar of the hadith is called a muhaddith, a scholar of jurisprudence is called a faqih (فقيه), a jurist who is qualified to issue legal opinions or fatwas is called a mufti, and a qadi is an Islamic judge. Honorific titles given to scholars include sheikh, mullah and mawlawi. Some Muslims also venerate saints associated with miracles (كرامات, karāmāt).[419]

Governance

See also: Political aspects of Islam, Islamic economics, Islamic military jurisprudence, tasamuh, and Jihad

In Islamic economic jurisprudence, hoarding of wealth is reviled and thus monopolistic behavior is frowned upon.[420] Attempts to comply with sharia has led to the development of Islamic banking. Islam prohibits riba, usually translated as usury, which refers to any unfair gain in trade and is most commonly used to mean interest.[421] Instead, Islamic banks go into partnership with the borrower, and both share from the profits and any losses from the venture. Another feature is the avoidance of uncertainty, which is seen as gambling[422] and Islamic banks traditionally avoid derivative instruments such as futures or options which has historically protected them from market downturns.[423] The Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphate used to be involved in distribution of charity from the treasury, known as Bayt al-mal, before it became a largely individual pursuit around the year 720. The first Caliph, Abu Bakr, distributed zakat as one of the first examples of a guaranteed minimum income, with each citizen getting 10 to 20 dirhams annually.[424] During the reign of the second Caliph Umar, child support was introduced and the old and disabled were entitled to stipends,[425][426] while the Umayyad Caliph Umar II assigned a servant for each blind person and for every two chronically ill persons.[427]

Jihad means "to strive or struggle [in the way of God]" and, in its broadest sense, is "exerting one's utmost power, efforts, endeavors, or ability in contending with an object of disapprobation".[428] Shias in particular emphasize the "greater jihad" of striving to attain spiritual self-perfection[429][430][431] while the "lesser jihad" is defined as warfare.[432][433] When used without a qualifier, jihad is often understood in its military form.[428][429] Jihad is the only form of warfare permissible in Islamic law and may be declared against illegal works, terrorists, criminal groups, rebels, apostates, and leaders or states who oppress Muslims.[432][433] Most Muslims today interpret Jihad as only a defensive form of warfare.[434] Jihad only becomes an individual duty for those vested with authority. For the rest of the populace, this happens only in the case of a general mobilization.[433] For most Twelver Shias, offensive jihad can only be declared by a divinely appointed leader of the Muslim community, and as such, is suspended since Muhammad al-Mahdi's occultation in 868 CE.[435][436]

Daily and family life

See also: Adab (Islam), Islamic dietary laws, Islam and children, Marriage in Islam, Women in Islam, and Polygyny in Islam

Islamic veils represent modesty

Many daily practices fall in the category of adab, or etiquette. Specific prohibited foods include pork products, blood and carrion. Health is viewed as a trust from God and intoxicants, such as alcoholic drinks, are prohibited.[437] All meat must come from a herbivorous animal slaughtered in the name of God by a Muslim, Jew, or Christian, except for game that one has hunted or fished for oneself.[438][439][440] Beards are often encouraged among men as something natural[441] and body modifications, such as permanent tattoos, are usually forbidden as violating the creation.[d][443] Silk and gold are prohibited for men in Islam to maintain a state of sobriety.[444] Haya, often translated as "shame" or "modesty", is sometimes described as the innate character of Islam[445] and informs much of Muslim daily life. For example, clothing in Islam emphasizes a standard of modesty, which has included the hijab for women. Similarly, personal hygiene is encouraged with certain requirements.[446]

A Muslim couple

In Islamic marriage, the groom is required to pay a bridal gift (mahr).[447][448][449] Most families in the Islamic world are monogamous.[450][451] Muslim men are allowed to practice polygyny and can have up to four wives simultaneously. Islamic teachings strongly advise that if a man cannot ensure equal financial and emotional support for each of his wives, it is recommended that he marry just one woman. One reason cited for polygyny is that it allows a man to give financial protection to multiple women, who might otherwise not have any support (e.g. widows). However, the first wife can set a condition in the marriage contract that the husband cannot marry another woman during their marriage.[452][453] There are also cultural variations in weddings.[454] Polyandry, a practice wherein a woman takes on two or more husbands, is prohibited in Islam.[455]

Muslim girls studying the Quran placed atop folding lecterns (rehal) during Ramadan in Qom, Iran

After the birth of a child, the adhan is pronounced in the right ear.[456] On the seventh day, the aqiqah ceremony is performed, in which an animal is sacrificed and its meat is distributed among the poor.[457] The child's head is shaved, and an amount of money equaling the weight of its hair is donated to the poor.[457] Male circumcision, called khitan,[458] is often practised in the Muslim world.[459][460] Respecting and obeying one's parents, and taking care of them especially in their old age is a religious obligation.[461]

A dying Muslim is encouraged to pronounce the Shahada as their last words.[462] Paying respects to the dead and attending funerals in the community are considered among the virtuous acts. In Islamic burial rituals, burial is encouraged as soon as possible, usually within 24 hours. The body is washed, except for martyrs, by members of the same gender and enshrouded in a garment that must not be elaborate called kafan.[463] A "funeral prayer" called Salat al-Janazah is performed. Wailing, or loud, mournful outcrying, is discouraged. Coffins are often not preferred and graves are often unmarked, even for kings.[464]

Arts and culture

Main article: Islamic culture

See also: Islamic art, Islamic architecture, Islamic literature, Islam in association football, and Cultural Muslims

The term "Islamic culture" can be used to mean aspects of culture that pertain to the religion, such as festivals and dress code. It is also controversially used to denote the cultural aspects of traditionally Muslim people.[465] Finally, "Islamic civilization" may also refer to the aspects of the synthesized culture of the early Caliphates, including that of non-Muslims,[466] sometimes referred to as "Islamicate".[467]

Islamic art encompasses the visual arts including fields as varied as architecture, calligraphy, painting, and ceramics, among others.[468][469] While the making of images of animate beings has often been frowned upon in connection with laws against idolatry, this rule has been interpreted in different ways by different scholars and in different historical periods. This stricture has been used to explain the prevalence of calligraphy, tessellation, and pattern as key aspects of Islamic artistic culture.[470] Additionally, the depiction of Muhammad is a contentious issue among Muslims.[471] In Islamic architecture, varying cultures show influence such as North African and Spanish Islamic architecture such as the Great Mosque of Kairouan containing marble and porphyry columns from Roman and Byzantine buildings,[472] while mosques in Indonesia often have multi-tiered roofs from local Javanese styles.[473]

The Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar that begins with the Hijra of 622 CE, a date that was reportedly chosen by Caliph Umar as it was an important turning point in Muhammad's fortunes.[474] Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, meaning they occur in different seasons in different years in the Gregorian calendar. The most important Islamic festivals are Eid al-Fitr (Arabic: عيد الفطر) on the 1st of Shawwal, marking the end of the fasting month Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha (عيد الأضحى) on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijjah, coinciding with the end of the Hajj (pilgrimage).[475][84]

Cultural Muslims are religiously non-practicing individuals who still identify with Islam due to family backgrounds, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up.[476][477]

14th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh

14th century Sixty Dome Mosque, in Khalifatabad, Bangladesh

 

Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali

Great Mosque of Djenné, in the west African country of Mali

 

Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan

Dome in Po-i-Kalyan, Bukhara, Uzbekistan

 

14th century Great Mosque of Xi'an in China

14th century Great Mosque of Xi'an in China

 

16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence

16th century Menara Kudus Mosque in Indonesia showing Indian influence

 

The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region

The phrase Bismillah in an 18th-century Islamic calligraphy from the Ottoman region

 

Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran

Geometric arabesque tiling on the underside of the dome of Hafiz Shirazi's tomb in Shiraz, Iran

Influences on other religions

See also: Islam and Druze

Some movements, such as the Druze,[478][479][480] Berghouata and Ha-Mim, either emerged from Islam or came to share certain beliefs with Islam, and whether each is a separate religion or a sect of Islam is sometimes controversial.[481] The Druze faith further split from Isma'ilism as it developed its own unique doctrines, and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether; these include the belief that the Imam Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh was God incarnate.[482][483] Yazdânism is seen as a blend of local Kurdish beliefs and Islamic Sufi doctrine introduced to Kurdistan by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir in the 12th century.[484] Bábism stems from Twelver Shia passed through Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad i-Shirazi al-Bab while one of his followers Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha'u'llah founded the Baháʼí Faith.[485] Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak in late 15th century Punjab, primarily incorporates aspects of Hinduism, with some Islamic influences.[486]

Criticism

Main article: Criticism of Islam

See also: Criticism of Muhammad and Criticism of the Quran

John of Damascus, under the Umayyad Caliphate, viewed Islamic doctrines as a hodgepodge from the Bible.[487]

Criticism of Islam has existed since its formative stages. Early criticism came from Jewish authors, such as Ibn Kammuna, and Christian authors, many of whom viewed Islam as a Christian heresy or a form of idolatry, often explaining it in apocalyptic terms.[488]

Christian writers criticized Islam's sensual descriptions of paradise. Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari defended the Quranic description of paradise by asserting that the Bible also implies such ideas, such as drinking wine in the Gospel of Matthew. Catholic theologian Augustine of Hippo's doctrines led to the broad repudiation of bodily pleasure in both life and the afterlife.[489]

Defamatory images of Muhammad, derived from early 7th-century depictions of the Byzantine Church,[490] appear in the 14th-century epic poem Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri.[491] Here, Muhammad is depicted in the eighth circle of hell, along with Ali. Dante does not blame Islam as a whole but accuses Muhammad of schism, by establishing another religion after Christianity.[491]

Other criticisms centre on the treatment of individuals within modern Muslim-majority countries, including issues related to human rights, particularly in relation to the application of Islamic law.[492] Furthermore, in the wake of the recent multiculturalism trend, Islam's influence on the ability of Muslim immigrants in the West to assimilate has been criticized.[493]

See also

Glossary of Islam

Index of Islam-related articles

List of scientists in medieval Islamic world

Islamic mythology

Islamic studies

Major religious groups

Outline of Islam

References

Footnotes

^ /ˈɪzlɑːm, ˈɪzlæm/ IZ-la(h)m;[8] Arabic: ٱلْإِسْلَام‎, romanized: al-Islām, IPA: [alʔɪsˈlaːm], lit. 'submission [to the will of God]'

^ "Hasan al Basri is often considered one of the first who rejected an angelic origin for the devil, arguing that his fall was the result of his own free-will, not God's determination. Hasan al Basri also argued that angels are incapable of sin or errors and nobler than humans and even prophets. Both early Shias and Sunnis opposed his view.[164]

^ "In recent years, the idea of syncretism has been challenged. Given the lack of authority to define or enforce an Orthodox doctrine about Islam, some scholars argue there had no prescribed beliefs, only prescribed practise, in Islam before the 16th century.[209]

^ Some Muslims in dynastic era China resisted footbinding of girls for the same reason.[442]

Quran and hadith

^ Quran 2:117

^ Quran 1:4;

^ Quran 6:31;

^ Quran 101:1

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^ Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250 (2nd ed.). Yale University Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-300-08869-8.

^ Suarez, Michael F. (2010). "38 The History of the Book in the Muslim World". The Oxford companion to the book. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 331ff. ISBN 9780198606536. OCLC 50238944.

^ Salim Ayduz; Ibrahim Kalin; Caner Dagli (2014). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Science, and Technology in Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 263. ISBN 978-0-19-981257-8. Figural representation is virtually unused in Islamic art because of Islam's strong antagonism of idolatry. It was important for Muslim scholars and artists to find a style of art that represented the Islamic ideals of unity (tawhid) and order without figural representation. Geometric patterns perfectly suited this goal.

^ T. W. Arnold (June 1919). "An Indian Picture of Muhammad and His Companions". The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. 34 (195). The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 34, No. 195.: 249–252. JSTOR 860736.

^ Isichei, Elizabeth Allo (1997). A history of African societies to 1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-521-45599-2. Retrieved 6 August 2010.

^ Tjahjono, Gunawan (1998). Indonesian Heritage-Architecture. Singapore: Archipelago Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 981-3018-30-5.

^ "Islamic calendar". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 8 August 2022.

^ Esposito, John (2004). The Islamic World: Past and Present. Oxford University Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 9780195165203.

^ Aitchison, Cara; Hopkins, Peter E.; Mei-Po Kwan (2007). Geographies of Muslim Identities: Diaspora, Gender and Belonging. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 147. ISBN 978-1-4094-8747-0. Retrieved 30 June 2013.

^ Rassool, G. Hussein (2015). Islamic Counselling: An Introduction to theory and practice. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 9781317441250. The label 'Cultural Muslim' is used in the literature to describe those Muslims who are religiously unobservant, secular or irreligious individuals who still identify with the Muslim culture due to family background, personal experiences, or the social and cultural environment in which they grew up... For Cultural Muslim the declaration of faith is superficial and has no effect of their religious practices.

^ De McLaurin, Ronald (1979). The Political Role of Minority Groups in the Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-03-052596-4. Theologically, one would have to conclude that the Druze are not Muslims. They do not accept the five pillars of Islam. In place of these principles, the Druze have instituted the seven precepts noted above...

^ Hunter, Shireen (2010). The Politics of Islamic Revivalism: Diversity and Unity: Center for Strategic and International Studies (Washington, D.C.), Georgetown University. Center for Strategic and International Studies. University of Michigan Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-253-34549-3. Druze – An offshoot of Shi'ism; its members are not considered Muslims by orthodox Muslims.

^ R. Williams, Victoria (2020). Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival [4 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. p. 318. ISBN 978-1-4408-6118-5. As Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Muslims.

^ D. Grafton, David (2009). Piety, Politics, and Power: Lutherans Encountering Islam in the Middle East. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-63087-718-7. In addition, there are several quasi-Muslim sects, in that, although they follow many of the beliefs and practices of orthodox Islam, the majority of Sunnis consider them heretical. These would be the Ahmadiyya, Druze, Ibadi, and the Yazidis.

^ Poonawala, Ismail K. (July–September 1999). "Review: The Fatimids and Their Traditions of Learning by Heinz Halm". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 119 (3). American Oriental Society: 542. doi:10.2307/605981. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 605981. LCCN 12032032. OCLC 47785421.

^ Bryer, David R. W. (1975). "The Origins of the Druze Religion (Fortsetzung)". Der Islam. 52 (2): 239–262. doi:10.1515/islm.1975.52.2.239. ISSN 1613-0928. S2CID 162363556.

^ Foltz, Richard (7 November 2013). "Two Kurdish Sects: The Yezidis and the Yaresan". Religions of Iran: From Prehistory to the Present. Oneworld Publications. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-78074-307-3.

^ House of Justice, Universal. "One Common Faith". reference.bahai.org. Retrieved 1 April 2017.

^ Elsberg, Constance (2003), Graceful Women. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-214-0. pp. 27–28.

^ "St. John of Damascus's Critique of Islam". Writings by St John of Damascus. The Fathers of the Church. Vol. 37. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press. 1958. pp. 153–160. Retrieved 8 July 2019.

^ Fahlbusch et al (2001), p. 759.

^ Christian Lange Paradise and Hell in Islamic Traditions Cambridge University Press, 2015 ISBN 978-0-521-50637-3 pp. 18–20

^ Reeves, Minou, and P. J. Stewart. 2003. Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6. p. 93–96.

^ ঝাঁপ দিন:a b Stone, G. 2006. Dante's Pluralism and the Islamic Philosophy of Religion. Springer Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4039-8309-1. p. 53-54.

^ Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. p. 18, 35. ISBN 978-0-521-02699-4.

^ Modood, Tariq (6 April 2006). Multiculturalism, Muslims and Citizenship: A European Approach (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-35515-5.

Bangladesh

 Bangladesh,[a] officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh,[b] is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world and twelfth-most densely populated with a population of 174,655,977[18] in an area of 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi). Bangladesh shares land borders with India to the north, west, and east, and Myanmar to the southeast. To the south, it has a coastline along the Bay of Bengal. To the north, it is separated from Bhutan and Nepal by the Siliguri Corridor, and from China by the mountainous Indian state of Sikkim. Dhaka, the capital and largest city, is the nation's political, financial, and cultural centre. Chittagong is the second-largest city and the busiest port of the country. The official language is Bengali, with Bangladeshi English also used in government. Islam is the official and largest religion and Bengali Muslims form the largest ethnoreligious group in the country.

Bangladesh is part of the historic and ethnolinguistic region of Bengal, which was divided during the Partition of British India in 1947 as the eastern exclave of the Dominion of Pakistan.[19] Ancient Bengal was known as Gangaridai and was a stronghold of pre-Islamic kingdoms. The Muslim conquest after 1204 led to the sultanate and Mughal periods, during which an independent Bengal Sultanate and wealthy Mughal Bengal transformed the region into an important centre of regional affairs, trade, and diplomacy. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of British rule for next 200 years. The creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 set a precedent for the emergence of Bangladesh. The All-India Muslim League, which was founded in Dhaka in 1906,[20] fought for a separate Bengali Muslim homeland in the Eastern Bengal, which was proposed in the Lahore Resolution in 1940 by A. K. Fazlul Huq, the first Prime Minister of Bengal. The present-day territorial boundary was established with the announcement of the Radcliffe Line.

In 1947, East Bengal became the most populous province in the Dominion of Pakistan and was renamed East Pakistan, with Dhaka as the legislative capital. The Bengali Language Movement in 1952, the 1958 Pakistani coup d'état, and the 1970 Pakistani general election spurred Bengali nationalism and pro-democracy movements. The refusal of the Pakistani military junta to transfer power to the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, triggered the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The Mukti Bahini waged a successful armed revolution; the conflict saw the Bangladeshi genocide. The country came into existence on 16 December 1971 after the surrender of Pakistan, ending the 9-month long Liberation War.[19]

After the war, Sheikh Mujib became the leader of the country. Mujib's assassination in 1975 led to the rise of Ziaur Rahman, who himself was assassinated in 1981. The 1980s was dominated by the presidency of Hussain Muhammad Ershad, who was overthrown in a mass uprising in 1990. After 1990, the "Battle of the Begums" between Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina defined Bangladesh's politics and history for next 34 years.[21][22][23] Following the overthrow of Hasina in a student–led mass uprising in August 2024, an interim government led by Nobel Peace laureate Muhammad Yunus took power.

A middle power in the Indo-Pacific,[24] Bangladesh is home to the fifth-most spoken native language, the third-largest Muslim-majority population, and the second-largest economy in South Asia. It maintains the third-largest military in the region and is the largest contributor to UN peacekeeping operations.[25] Bangladesh is a unitary parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system. Bengalis make up almost 99% of the population.[26] The country consists of eight divisions, 64 districts, and 495 sub districts, and includes the world's largest mangrove forest. Bangladesh has one of the largest refugee populations in the world due to the Rohingya genocide in neighboring Myanmar.[27] Bangladesh faces challenges like corruption, political instability, overpopulation, and the effects of climate change. Bangladesh has twice chaired the Climate Vulnerable Forum and hosts the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) headquarters. It is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Commonwealth of Nations.

Etymology

Main article: Names of Bengal

The etymology of Bangladesh ("Bengali country") can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy by Rabindranath Tagore and Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by Kazi Nazrul Islam, used the term in 1905 and 1932 respectively.[28] Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan.

The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe,[29] and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom.[30] The earliest known usage of the term is the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term Vangala Desa is found in 11th-century South Indian records.[31][32] The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century.[33][34] Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first "Shah of Bangala" in 1342.[33] The word Bangāl became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period.[35] 16th-century historian Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his Ain-i-Akbari that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al".[36] This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyaz-us-Salatin.[37]

The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal".[32]

History

Main article: History of Bangladesh

The history of Bangladesh dates back over four millennia to the Chalcolithic period. The region's early history was characterized by a succession of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms and empires that fought for control over the Bengal region. Islam arrived in the 8th century and gradually became dominant from the early 13th century with the conquests led by Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1204 and the activities of Sunni missionaries like Shah Jalal. Muslim rulers promoted the spread of Islam by building mosques across the region. In 1338 Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah established independent sultanate in Bengal, establishing the capital at Sonargaon and founded an individual currency. The Bengal Sultanate expanded under rulers like Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, leading to economic prosperity and military dominance, with Bengal being referred to by Europeans as the richest country to trade with. The region later became a part of the Mughal Empire. By the 18th century, Mughal Bengal emerged as the wealthiest province of the empire. [38]

Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, founded by Murshid Quli Khan in 1717. In 1757 the state led by Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated by the British East India Company in the Battle of Plassey. The British abolished local rule in Bengal in 1793 following their victories at the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Battle of Buxar (1764), effectively taking complete control of the region; this event is considered the end of the Nawab's power in Bengal and the start of direct British rule in Bengal. Bengal played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution in Britain at the expense of flight of Bengal's capital, and also faced significant deindustrialization. The Great Bengal famine of 1770 resulted in millions of deaths. The Bengal Presidency was established during British rule.[39]

The borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal between India and Pakistan during the Partition of India in August 1947, when the region became East Pakistan as part of the newly formed State of Pakistan following the end of the British rule in the region. The Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence on 26 March 1971 by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman led to the nine-month-long Bangladesh Liberation War, which culminated in the emergence of the independent People's Republic of Bangladesh after victory was achieved on 16 December 1971. Dhaka became the capital of independent Bangladesh.

Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal

The Constitution of Bangladesh, enacted in 1972, established a democratic state with fundamental rights, an independent judiciary, and an elected parliament called the Jatiya Sangsad.[40] Since gaining independence, Bangladesh has faced issues of political instability, economic reconstruction, and social transformation. The country experienced one party socialism under Sheikh Mujib in 1975, followed by military coups and military rule, notably under General Ziaur Rahman and General Hussain Muhammad Ershad. During the 1970s and the 1980s gradual economic liberalization and free market reforms were promoted, while Islam was declared the state religion in 1988. The country however experienced severe population boom despite its small land.[41][42][43] The restoration of parliamentary democracy in 1991 saw power alternate between the Awami League and the BNP. For most of the 21st Century, Bangladesh has achieved significant economic growth, emerging as one of the world's fastest-growing economies, driven by its garment industry, remittances, and infrastructure development. However, it continues to grapple with political instability, human rights issues, and the impact of climate change. The return of the Awami League to power on 6 January 2009 under Sheikh Hasina's leadership saw economic progress but criticisms of authoritarianism. Bangladesh has played a critical role in addressing regional issues, including the Rohingya refugee crisis, which has strained its resources and highlighted its humanitarian commitments.

The poverty rate went down from 80% in 1971 to 44% in 1991 to 13% in 2021.[44][45][46] Bangladesh emerged as the second-largest economy in South Asia,[47][48] surpassing the per capita income levels of both India and Pakistan.[49][48] As part of the green transition, Bangladesh's industrial sector emerged as a leader in building green factories, with the country having the largest number of certified green factories in the world in 2023.[50] In January 2024, Awami League led by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina secured a fourth straight term in Bangladesh's controversial general election. Following nationwide protests against the Awami League government, on 5 August 2024, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina was forced to resign and flee to India.[51][52][53][54][55] An interim government was formed on 8 August 2024, with Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus as the Chief Advisor.[56]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Bangladesh

Physical map of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is in South Asia on the Bay of Bengal. It is surrounded almost entirely by neighbouring India, and shares a small border with Myanmar to its southeast, though it lies very close to Nepal, Bhutan, and China. The country is divided into three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges Delta, the largest river delta in the world.[57] The northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges.

The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna rivers and their tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later joins the Meghna, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is called the "Land of Rivers",[58] as it is home to over 57 trans-boundary rivers, the most of any nation-state. Water issues are politically complicated since Bangladesh is downstream of India.[59]

Bangladesh is predominantly rich fertile flat land. Most of it is less than 12 m (39 ft) above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10% of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 m (3.3 ft).[60] 12% of the country is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science. The highest point in Bangladesh is the Saka Haphong, located near the border with Myanmar, with an elevation of 1,064 m (3,491 ft).[61] Previously, either Keokradong or Tazing Dong were considered the highest.

In Bangladesh forest cover is around 14% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,883,400 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 1,920,330 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 1,725,330 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 158,070 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 33% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.[62][63]

Climate

Main articles: Geography of Bangladesh § Climate, and Climate change in Bangladesh

Flooding after the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone, which killed around 140,000 people

Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh's climate is tropical, with a mild winter from October to March and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never recorded an air temperature below 0 °C (32 °F), with a record low of 1.1 °C (34.0 °F) in the northwest city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905.[64] A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores occur almost every year,[65] combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing approximately 140,000 people.[66]

In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern history, after which two-thirds of the country went underwater, along with a death toll of 1,000.[67] As a result of various international and national level initiatives in disaster risk reduction, the human toll and economic damage from floods and cyclones have come down over the years.[68] The 2007 South Asian floods ravaged areas across the country, leaving five million people displaced, with a death toll around 500.[69]

Climate change

Main article: Climate change in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change.[70][71] Over the course of a century, 508 cyclones have affected the Bay of Bengal region, 17 percent of which are believed to have made landfall in Bangladesh.[72] Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as the climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health, and shelter.[73] It is estimated that by 2050, a three-foot rise in sea levels will inundate some 20 percent of the land and displace more than 30 million people.[74] To address the sea level rise threat in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 has been launched.[75][76]

Biodiversity

Main article: Fauna of Bangladesh

A Bengal tiger, the national animal, in the Sundarbans

Bangladesh is located in the Indomalayan realm, and lies within four terrestrial ecoregions: Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests, Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests, Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests, and Sundarbans mangroves.[77] Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, lakes, wetlands, evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests, freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut, and date palm.[78] The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants.[79] Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries.

Bangladesh is home to most of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest, covering an area of 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries: the South, East, and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest, and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi-evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along with the districts of Gazipur, Tangail, and Mymensingh. St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country.

Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife in its forests, marshes, woodlands, and hills.[78] The vast majority of animals dwell within a habitat of 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi).[80] The Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, black panther and fishing cat are among the chief predators in the Sundarbans.[81] Northern and eastern Bangladesh is home to the Asian elephant, hoolock gibbon, Asian black bear and oriental pied hornbill.[82] The chital deer are widely seen in southwestern woodlands. Other animals include the black giant squirrel, capped langur, Bengal fox, sambar deer, jungle cat, king cobra, wild boar, mongooses, pangolins, pythons and water monitors. Bangladesh has one of the largest populations of Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins.[83] The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It also has 628 species of birds.[84]

Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one-horned and two-horned rhinoceros and common peafowl. The human population is concentrated in urban areas, limiting deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened natural habitats. The country has widespread environmental issues; pollution of the Dhaleshwari River by the textile industry and shrimp cultivation in Chakaria Sundarbans have both been described by academics as ecocides.[85][86] Although many areas are protected under law, some Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas, including wetlands, forests, and rivers. The Sundarbans tiger project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation.[82] It ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994.[87] As of 2014, the country was set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.[87]

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Bangladesh and Politics of Bangladesh

The National Parliament building in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, a neighborhood named after the first Prime Minister of Bengal

Bangabhaban (literally Bengal House) is the presidential palace of Bangladesh. It was originally a house for the Viceroy of India and the Governor of Bengal.

Bangladesh is a de jure representative democracy under its constitution, with a Westminster-style parliamentary republic that has universal suffrage. The head of government is the Prime Minister, who forms a government every five years. The President invites the leader of the largest party in parliament to become prime minister.[88]

The Government of Bangladesh is overseen by a cabinet headed by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh. The tenure of a parliamentary government is five years. The Bangladesh Civil Service assists the cabinet in running the government. Recruitment for the civil service is based on a public examination. In theory, the civil service should be a meritocracy. But a disputed quota system coupled with politicisation and preference for seniority have allegedly affected the civil service's meritocracy.[89] The President of Bangladesh is the ceremonial head of state[90] whose powers include signing bills passed by parliament into law. The President is the Supreme Commander of the Bangladesh Armed Forces and the chancellor of all universities. The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is the highest court of the land, followed by the High Court and Appellate Divisions. The head of the judiciary is the Chief Justice of Bangladesh, who sits on the Supreme Court. The courts have wide latitude in judicial review, and judicial precedent is supported by Article 111 of the constitution. The judiciary includes district and metropolitan courts divided into civil and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a large backlog.

The Jatiya Sangshad (National Parliament) is the unicameral parliament. It has 350 members of parliament (MPs), including 300 MPs elected on the first past the post system and 50 MPs appointed to reserved seats for women's empowerment. Article 70 of the Constitution of Bangladesh forbids MPs from voting against their party. However, several laws proposed independently by MPs have been transformed into legislation, including the anti-torture law.[91] The parliament is presided over by the Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad, who is second in line to the president as per the constitution.[92]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is considered a middle power in global politics.[93] It plays an important role in the geopolitical affairs of the Indo-Pacific,[94] due to its strategic location between South and Southeast Asia.[95] Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 and the United Nations in 1974.[96][97] It relies on multilateral diplomacy on issues like climate change, nuclear nonproliferation, trade policy and non-traditional security issues.[98] Bangladesh pioneered the creation of SAARC, which has been the preeminent forum for regional diplomacy among the countries of the Indian subcontinent.[99] It joined the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 1974,[100] and is a founding member of the Developing 8 Countries.[101] In recent years, Bangladesh has focused on promoting regional trade and transport links with support from the World Bank.[102] Dhaka hosts the headquarters of BIMSTEC, an organisation that brings together countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal.

U.S. President Joe Biden with Chief Adviser Muhammad Yunus at the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City.

Relations with neighbouring Myanmar have been severely strained since 2016–2017, after over 700,000 Rohingya refugees illegally entered Bangladesh.[103] The parliament, government, and civil society of Bangladesh have been at the forefront of international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, and have demanded their right of return to Arakan.[104][105]

Bangladesh shares an important bilateral and economic relationship with its largest neighbour India,[106] which is often strained by water politics of the Ganges and the Teesta,[107][108][109] and the border killings of Bangladeshi civilians.[110][111] Post-independent Bangladesh has continued to have a problematic relationship with Pakistan, mainly due to its denial of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide.[112] It maintains a warm relationship with China, which is its largest trading partner, and the largest arms supplier.[113] Japan is Bangladesh's largest economic aid provider, and the two maintain a strategic and economic partnership.[114] Political relations with Middle Eastern countries are robust.[115] Bangladesh receives 59% of its remittances from the Middle East,[116] despite poor working conditions affecting over four million Bangladeshi workers.[117] Bangladesh plays a major role in global climate diplomacy as a leader of the Climate Vulnerable Forum.[118]

Military

Main article: Bangladesh Armed Forces

The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the British military and the British Indian Army.[119] In 2022, the active personnel strength of the Bangladesh Army was around 250,000,[120] excluding the Air Force and the Navy (24,000).[121] In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces. The military budget of Bangladesh accounts for 1.3% of GDP, amounting to US$4.3 billion in 2021.[122][123]

World map, indicating where the Bangladeshi UN peacekeeping force is stationed

Map of Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force deployments

The Bangladesh Navy, one of the largest in the Bay of Bengal, includes a fleet of frigates, submarines, corvettes, and other vessels. The Bangladesh Air Force has a small fleet of multi-role combat aircraft. Most of Bangladesh's military equipment comes from China.[124] In recent years, Bangladesh and India have increased joint military exercises, high-level visits of military leaders, counter-terrorism cooperation and intelligence sharing. Bangladesh is vital to ensuring stability and security in northeast India.[125][126]

Bangladesh's strategic importance in the eastern subcontinent hinges on its proximity to China, its frontier with Burma, the separation of mainland and northeast India, and its maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal.[127] In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defence Cooperation Agreement.[128] The United States has pursued negotiations with Bangladesh on a Status of Forces Agreement, an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement and a General Security of Military Information Agreement.[129][130][131] In 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[132]

Civil society

Since the colonial period, Bangladesh has had a prominent civil society. There are various special interest groups, including non-governmental organisations, human rights organisations, professional associations, chambers of commerce, employers' associations, and trade unions.[133] The National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh was set up in 2007. Notable human rights organisations and initiatives include the Centre for Law and Mediation, Odhikar, the Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety, the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association, the Bangladesh Hindu Buddhist Christian Unity Council and the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee. The world's largest international NGO BRAC is based in Bangladesh. There have been concerns regarding the shrinking space for independent civil society in recent years.[134][135][136]

Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Bangladesh

Armed men in black uniforms on a street

The Rapid Action Battalion has been sanctioned by the United States for human rights abuses.

Torture is banned by the Constitution of Bangladesh,[137] but is rampantly used by Bangladesh's security forces. Bangladesh joined the Convention against Torture in 1998 and it enacted its first anti-torture law, the Torture and Custodial Death (Prevention) Act, in 2013. The first conviction under this law was announced in 2020.[138] Amnesty International Prisoners of Conscience from Bangladesh have included Saber Hossain Chowdhury and Shahidul Alam.[139][140] The widely criticized Digital Security Act was repealed and replaced by the Cyber Security Act in 2023.[141] The repeal was welcomed by the International Press Institute.[142]

On International Human Rights Day in December 2021, the United States Department of the Treasury announced sanctions on commanders of the Rapid Action Battalion for extrajudicial killings, torture, and other human rights abuses.[143] Freedom House has criticised the government for human rights abuses, the crackdown on the opposition, mass media, and civil society through politicized enforcement.[144] Bangladesh is ranked "partly free" in Freedom House's Freedom in the World report,[145] but its press freedom has deteriorated from "free" to "not free" in recent years due to increasing pressure from the government.[146] According to the British Economist Intelligence Unit, the country has a hybrid regime: the third of four rankings in its Democracy Index.[147] Bangladesh was ranked 96th among 163 countries in the 2022 Global Peace Index.[148] According to National Human Rights Commission, 70% of alleged human-rights violations are committed by law-enforcement agencies.[149]

LGBT rights are frowned upon among social conservatives.[150] Homosexuality is affected by Section 377 of the Penal Code of Bangladesh, which was originally enacted by the British colonial government.[151][152] An underground LGBT scene is flourishing across the country. However, Bangladesh only recognises the local transgender and intersex community known as the Hijra, which is the most widely accepted LGBT group among poorer sections of society.[153][154] According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 1,531,300 people are enslaved in Bangladesh, or roughly 1% of the population.[155][156][157][158]

Corruption

Main article: Corruption in Bangladesh

Like many developing countries, institutional corruption is an issue of concern for Bangladesh. Bangladesh was ranked 146th among 180 countries on Transparency International's 2018 Corruption Perceptions Index.[159] Land administration was the sector with the most bribery in 2015,[160] followed by education,[161] police[162] and water supply.[163] The Anti Corruption Commission was formed in 2004, and it was active during the 2006–08 Bangladeshi political crisis, indicting many leading politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen for graft.[164][165][166]

Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative geography of Bangladesh

Further information: Divisions of Bangladesh, Districts of Bangladesh, and Upazilas of Bangladesh

A clickable map of Bangladesh exhibiting its divisions.

Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions,[167][61][168] each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal (officially Barishal[169]), Chittagong (officially Chattogram[169]), Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet.

Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, further divided into mahallas.

There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and several members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.[170]

Administrative Divisions of Bangladesh

Division Capital Established Area (km2)

[171] 2021 Population

(projected)[172] Density

2021

Barisal Division Barisal 1 January 1993 13,225 9,713,000 734

Chittagong Division Chittagong 1 January 1829 33,909 34,747,000 1,025

Dhaka Division Dhaka 1 January 1829 20,594 42,607,000 2,069

Khulna Division Khulna 1 October 1960 22,284 18,217,000 817

Mymensingh Division Mymensingh 14 September 2015 10,584 13,457,000 1,271

Rajshahi Division Rajshahi 1 January 1829 18,153 21,607,000 1,190

Rangpur Division Rangpur 25 January 2010 16,185 18,868,000 1,166

Sylhet Division Sylhet 1 August 1995 12,635 12,463,000 986

Economy

Main article: Economy of Bangladesh

Further information: Tourism in Bangladesh and List of companies of Bangladesh

Motijheel in the nation's capital Dhaka is the largest commercial district in the city

The Padma Bridge, opened in 2022, is a road-rail bridge which spans the Padma River

The Sundarbans is the largest mangrove forest in the world

Bangladesh's lower-middle income mixed-market economy is among the fastest growing economies in the world.[173][174] A rapidly developing country, it has the world's 36th-largest economy by nominal terms, and the 24th-largest by PPP. Bangladesh has a labor force of 71.4 million,[175] which is the world's seventh-largest; with an unemployment rate of 5.1% as of 2023.[176] Its foreign exchange reserves, although depleting,[177] remain the second-highest in South Asia, after India. Bangladesh's large diaspora contributed roughly $27 billion in remittances in 2024.[178] It has achieved remarkable feats in reducing its poverty rate, which has gone down from 80% in 1971,[179] to 44.2% in 1991,[180] all the way down to 18.7% in 2022.[181] The Bangladeshi taka is the national currency.

As of 2023, the large service sector accounts for about 51.5% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (34.6%), while the agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 11% of total GDP;[182] despite being the largest employment sector, providing roughly half of the total workforce.[183] Over 84% of the export earnings come from the textile industry.[184] However, Bangladesh is a major producer of jute,[185] rice,[186] fish,[187] tea,[188] and flowers.[189] Other major industries include shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals, steel, electronics and leather goods.[190] China is the largest trading partner of Bangladesh, accounting for 15% of the total trade, followed by India; which accounts for 8% of the total trade.[191]

The private sector accounts for 80% of GDP compared to the dwindling role of state-owned companies.[192] Bangladesh's economy is dominated by family-owned conglomerates and small and medium-sized businesses. Some of the largest publicly traded companies in Bangladesh include BEXIMCO, BRAC Bank, BSRM, GPH Ispat, Grameenphone, Summit Group, and Square Pharmaceuticals.[193] The Dhaka and Chittagong Stock Exchanges are the country's twin capital markets.[194] Its telecommunications industry is one of the world's fastest growing, with 188.78 million cellphone subscribers at the end of November 2024.[195] Political instability,[196] high inflation,[197] endemic corruption,[198] insufficient power supplies,[199] and slow implementation of reforms are major challenges to economic growth.[197]

The tourism industry is expanding, contributing some 3.02% of total GDP.[200] Bangladesh's international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $391 million.[201] The country has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites (the Mosque City, the Buddhist Vihara and the Sundarbans) and seven tentative-list sites.[202] The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported in 2019 that the travel and tourism industry in Bangladesh directly generated 1,180,500 jobs in 2018 or 1.9% of the country's total employment.[203] According to the same report, Bangladesh experiences around 125,000 international tourist arrivals per year.[203] Domestic spending generated 97.7 percent of direct travel and tourism gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.[204]

Energy

Main article: Electricity sector in Bangladesh

Further information: Energy policy of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Power Development Board, Natural gas and petroleum in Bangladesh, and Petrobangla

The under-construction Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant at night

Wind turbines on Kutubdia Island

Bangladesh, a country experiencing daily blackouts several times a day in 2009, achieved 100% electrification by 2022.[205][206] It is gradually transitioning to a green economy and has the largest off-grid solar power programme in the world, benefiting 20 million people.[207] An electric car called the Palki is being developed for production in the country.[208] Biogas is being used to produce organic fertilizer.[209] The under-construction Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, under-construction with assistance from the Russian company Rosatom, will be the first operational nuclear power plant in the country. Its first unit, out of the two total units, is expected to go into operation in 2025.[210]

Bangladesh continues to have huge untapped reserves of natural gas, particularly in its maritime territory.[211][212] A lack of exploration and decreasing proven reserves have forced Bangladesh to import LNG from abroad.[213][214][215] Gas shortages were further exasperated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[216] Bangladesh stopped buying spot price LNG temporarily in July 2022, despite constant load-shedding, due to a steep price hike in the global market.[217] It restarted buying spot price LNG once again in February 2023 as prices eased.[218]

While government-owned companies in Bangladesh generate nearly half of Bangladesh's electricity, privately owned companies like the Summit Group and Orion Group are playing an increasingly important role in both generating electricity, and supplying machinery, reactors, and equipment.[219] Bangladesh increased electricity production from 5 gigawatts in 2009 to 25.5 gigawatts in 2022. It plans to produce 50 gigawatts by 2041. U.S. companies like Chevron and General Electric supply around 55% of Bangladesh's domestic natural gas production and are among the largest investors in power projects. 80% of Bangladesh's installed gas-fired power generation capacity comes from turbines manufactured in the United States.[220]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Bangladesh and Bengalis

Population (millions)

Year Pop. ±% p.a.

1971 67,800,000 —    

1980 80,600,000 +1.94%

1990 105,300,001 +2.71%

2000 129,600,000 +2.10%

2010 148,700,000 +1.38%

2012 161,100,200 +4.09%

2022 165,160,000 +0.25%

Source: OECD/World Bank[221][222]

According to the 2022 Census, Bangladesh has a population of 165.1 million,[9] and is the eighth-most-populous country in the world, the fifth-most populous country in Asia, and the most densely populated large country in the world, with a headline population density of 1,265 people/km2 as of 2020.[223] Its total fertility rate (TFR), once among the highest in the world, has experienced a dramatic decline, from 5.5 in 1985 to 3.7 in 1995, down to 2.0 in 2020,[224] which is below the sub-replacement fertility of 2.1.[225] The majority of Bangladeshis live in rural areas, with only 39% of the population living in urban areas as of 2021.[226] It has a median age of roughly 28 years, with 26% of the total population aged 14 or younger,[227] and merely 5% aged 65 and above.[228]

Bangladesh is an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society, as Bengalis form 99% of the population.[222] The Adivasi population includes the Chakmas, Marmas, Santhals, Mros, Tanchangyas, Bawms, Tripuris, Khasis, Khumis, Kukis, Garos, and Bisnupriya Manipuris. The Chittagong Hill Tracts region experienced unrest and an insurgency from 1975 to 1997 in an autonomy movement by its indigenous people. Although a peace accord was signed in 1997, the region remains militarised.[229] Urdu-speaking stranded Pakistanis were given citizenship by the Supreme Court in 2008.[230] Bangladesh also hosts over 700,000 Rohingya refugees since 2017, giving it one of the largest refugee populations in the world.[103]

Urban centres

Further information: List of cities and towns in Bangladesh

Bangladesh's capital Dhaka and the largest city and is overseen by two city corporations that manage between them the northern and southern parts of the city. There are 12 city corporations which hold mayoral elections: Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Chittagong, Comilla, Khulna, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Gazipur and Narayanganj. There are, however, eight divisions in total. They are: Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Rangpur, Rajshahi, Khulna, Mymensingh and Barishal. Mayors are elected for five-year terms. Altogether there are 506 urban centres in Bangladesh which 43 cities have a population of more than 100,000.

  

Largest cities or towns in Bangladesh

[1]

Rank Name Pop.

Dhaka

Dhaka

Chittagong

Chittagong 1 Dhaka 10,278,882 Gazipur

Gazipur

Narayanganj

Narayanganj

2 Chittagong 3,227,246

3 Gazipur 2,674,697

4 Narayanganj 967,724

5 Khulna 718,735

6 Rangpur 708,384

7 Mymensingh 576,722

8 Rajshahi 552,791

9 Sylhet 532,426

10 Cumilla 439,414

Language

Main article: Languages of Bangladesh

The Shaheed Minar, a national monument in Dhaka established to commemorate the martyrs of the 1952 Bengali Language Movement, is a symbol of Bengali nationalism.

The official and predominant language of Bangladesh is Bengali, which is spoken by more than 99% of the population as their native language.[231][232] Bengali is described as a dialect continuum where there are various dialects spoken throughout the country. There is a diglossia in which much of the population can understand or speak in Standard Colloquial Bengali, and in their regional dialect or language.[233] These include Chittagonian which is spoken in the southeastern region of Chittagong,[234] Noakhali spoken in the southern district of Noakhali[235][236] and Sylheti spoken in the northeastern region of Sylhet.[232]

English plays an important role in Bangladesh's judicial and educational affairs, due to the country's history as part of the British Empire. It is widely spoken and commonly understood, and is taught as a compulsory subject in all schools, colleges and universities, while the English-medium educational system is widely attended.[237]

Tribal languages, although increasingly endangered, include the Chakma language, another native Eastern Indo-Aryan language, spoken by the Chakma people.[238] Others are Garo, Meitei, Kokborok and Rakhine. Among the Austroasiatic languages, the most spoken is the Santali language, native to the Santal people.[239]

The stranded Pakistanis and some sections of the Old Dhakaites often use Urdu as their native tongue. Still, the usage of the latter remains highly reproached.[240]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Bangladesh

Religions in Bangladesh (2022 census)[241]

Religion Percent

Muslims

 

91.04%

Hindus

 

7.94%

Buddhism

 

0.60%

Christians

 

0.31%

Others

 

0.11%

Islam is the state religion of Bangladesh.[242] However, the constitution also upholds secularism and ensures equal rights for all religions.[243][242] Every citizen has the freedom to practice any religion.

Islam the largest religion across the country, being followed by about 91.1% of the population.[244] The vast majority of Bangladeshi citizens are Bengali Muslims, adhering to Sunni Islam.[245] The country is the third-most populous Muslim-majority state in the world and has the fourth-largest overall Muslim population.[246]

Bengali Hindus form the country's second-largest religious minority and the third-largest Hindu community in the world. According to the 2022 census Hindus form 7.95% of the total population.[245][244] In the 2011 census, Hindus formed 8.54% of the population.

Buddhism is the third-most followed religion, adhered to by merely 0.6% of the population.[244] Bangladeshi Buddhists are concentrated among the tribal ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and by the Bengali Buddhist minority across coastal Chittagong, who mostly follow the Theravada school.[245]

Christianity is the fourth-largest religion at 0.3%, followed mainly by a small Bengali Christian minority.[244] 0.1% of the population practices other religions such as Animism or is irreligious.[245]

Education

Main article: Education in Bangladesh

The literacy rate of the districts of Bangladesh

The constitution states that all children shall receive free and compulsory education.[247] Education in Bangladesh is overseen by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Primary and Mass Education is responsible for implementing policy for primary education and state-funded schools at a local level. Primary and secondary education is compulsory, and is financed by the state and free of charge in public schools. Bangladesh has a literacy rate of 74.7% per cent as of 2019: 77.4% for males and 71.9% for females.[248][249] The country's educational system is three-tiered and heavily subsidised, with the government operating many schools at the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and subsidising many private schools. In the tertiary education sector, the Bangladeshi government funds over 45 state universities[250] through the University Grants Commission (UGC), created by Presidential Order 10 in 1973.[251] However, government expenditure in education remains among the lowest in the world, at only 1.8% of the total GDP.[252]

The education system is divided into five levels: primary (first to fifth grade), junior secondary (sixth to eighth grade), secondary (ninth and tenth grade), higher secondary (11th and 12th grade), and tertiary which is university level.[253] Primary level students have to pass the Primary Education Completion (PEC) exam to proceed to junior secondary. The junior secondary students then give the Junior School Certificate (JSC) exam to get enrolled in ninth grade, while tenth-grade students have to pass the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) exam to proceed to eleventh grade. Lastly, students have to pass the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) exam at grade twelve to apply for higher education or universities.[254][255]

Universities in Bangladesh are of three general types: public (government-owned and subsidised), private (privately owned universities) and international (operated and funded by international organisations). The country has 47 public,[250] 105 private[256] and two international universities. Bangladesh National University has the largest enrolment. The University of Dhaka, established in 1921, is the oldest public university. Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) is a premiere university for engineering education. The University of Chittagong, established in 1966, has the largest campus.[257] Dhaka College, established in 1841, is the oldest institution for higher education.[258] Bangladesh University of Professionals (BUP) is the largest public university affiliated with the armed forces.[259] Medical education is provided by 39 government, 6 armed force and 68 private medical colleges. All medical colleges are affiliated with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

Health

Main article: Health in Bangladesh

Historical development of life expectancy in Bangladesh, displaying significant strides since independence

Historical development of child mortality in Bangladesh since 1990, showing a significant decrease

A community health worker conducting a survey in a slum of the capital city, Dhaka

Bangladesh, by the constitution, guarantees healthcare services as a fundamental right to all of its citizens.[260] The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the largest institutional healthcare provider in Bangladesh,[261] and contains two divisions: Health Service Division and Medical Education And Family Welfare Division.[262] However, healthcare facilities in Bangladesh are considered less than adequate, although they have improved as the economy has grown and poverty levels have decreased significantly.[261] Bangladesh faces a severe health workforce crisis, as formally trained providers make up a small percentage of the total health workforce.[263] Significant deficiencies in the treatment practices of village doctors persist, with widespread harmful and inappropriate drug prescribing.[264]

Bangladesh's poor healthcare system suffers from severe underfunding from the government.[261] As of 2021, some 2.36% of total GDP was attributed to healthcare,[265] and domestic general government spending on healthcare was 16.88% of the total budget,[266] while out-of-pocket expenditures made up the vast majority of the total budget, totalling roughly 73%.[267] Domestic private health expenditure was about 75.48% of the total healthcare expenditure.[268] There were only 5.3 doctors per 10,000 people, and about six physicians[269] and six nurses per 1,000 people,[270] while the number of hospital beds is 9 per 1,000.[271][272] The specialist surgical workforce was only 3 per 100,000 people,[273] and there were about 5 community health workers per 1,000 people.[274]

Roughly 60% of the population had access to drinking water in 2022.[275] In 2002, it was estimated that half of the drinking water was polluted with arsenic, exceeding levels of 10 micrograms per litre.[276] Bangladesh is crippled with one of the worst air qualities in the world, mostly concentrated in the densely populated urban areas, especially the capital Dhaka and its metropolitan area.[277] The World Bank estimated that roughly 80,000-90,000 deaths occured in Bangladesh due to the drastic effects of air pollution in 2019. It was second-leading cause of death and disability, costing the country roughly 4-4.4% percent of its total GDP.[278]

As of 2022, the overall life expectancy in Bangladesh at birth was 74 years (72 years for males and 76 years for females).[279] It has a comparably high infant mortality rate (24 per 1,000 live births) and child mortality rate (29 per 1,000 live births).[280][281] As of 2020, maternal mortality remains high, clocking at 123 per 100,000 live births.[282] Bangladesh is a key source market for medical tourism for various countries, mainly India,[283] due to its citizens dissatisfaction and distrust over their own healthcare system.[284]

The main causes of death are coronary artery disease, stroke, and chronic respiratory disease; comprising 62% and 60% of all adult male and female deaths, respectively.[285] Malnutrition is a major and persistent problem in Bangladesh, mainly affecting the rural regions, more than half of the population suffers from it. Severe acute malnutrition affects 450,000 children, while nearly 2 million children have moderate acute malnutrition. For children under the age of five, 52% are affected by anaemia, 41% are stunted, 16% are wasted, and 36% are underweight. A quarter of women are underweight and around 15% have short stature, while over half also suffer from anaemia.[286] Bangladesh was ranked 84th out of the 127 countries listed in the 2024 Global Hunger Index.[287]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Bangladesh

See also: Culture of Bengal and Bengali Renaissance

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Bangladesh

The Sixty Dome Mosque in Bagerhat

The Ahsan Manzil in Old Dhaka

The architecture of Bangladesh is intertwined with that of the Bengal region and the broader Indian subcontinent. It is influenced by the country's culture, religion and history.[288] The Somapura Mahavihara built under the rule of the Buddhist Pala Empire in the 8th century is an outstanding example of the pre-Islamic era.[289] Indo-Islamic architecture can be seen from the 13th century, especially in the unique mosque architecture of the Bengal Sultanate, an example being the Sixty Dome Mosque in Bagerhat.[290][291] Mughal Bengal saw the spread of Mughal architecture in the region. Examples in Dhaka include the Lalbagh Fort, Bara Katra and Choto Katra in Old Dhaka, the Sat Gambuj Mosque in Mohammadpur and the Musa Khan Mosque in Curzon Hall.[292][293] The Kantajew Temple and Dhakeshwari Temple are excellent examples of late medieval Hindu temple architecture.[294][295] Recent excavations have also uncovered new evidence of pre-Islamic smaller temples which served the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain populations of the area.[291]

Bengali vernacular architecture is noted for pioneering the bungalow.[296] Indo-Saracenic architecture flourished during the British Raj,[297] examples include the Curzon Hall of the University of Dhaka, the Chittagong Court Building, Rangpur Town Hall and Rajshahi College. The zamindar gentry built many palaces in the latter style, including the Ahsan Manzil, the Tajhat Palace, the Rose Garden Palace, the Dighapatia Palace, the Puthia Rajbari, Natore Rajbari and the Mohera Zamindar Bari. Muzharul Islam is considered to be a pioneer of modernist movement in Bangladesh and South Asia.[298] Louis Kahn is a notable foreign architect who designed the National Parliament Building in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar.[299]

Visual arts and crafts

Main article: Bangladeshi art

Embroidery on Nakshi kantha (embroidered quilt), a centuries-old Bengali art tradition

The recorded history of art in Bangladesh can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta sculptures were made in the region. In classical antiquity, notable sculptural Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist art developed in the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty. Islamic art has evolved since the 14th century. The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets. Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage.[300] Ivory and brass were also widely used in Mughal art. Pottery is thoroughly used in Bengali culture.

The modern art movement in Bangladesh took shape during the 1950s, particularly with the pioneering works of Zainul Abedin. East Bengal developed its own modernist painting and sculpture traditions, which were distinct from the art movements in West Bengal. The Art Institute Dhaka has been a significant centre for visual art in the region. Its annual Bengali New Year parade was enlisted as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016.

Modern Bangladesh has produced many of South Asia's leading painters, including SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Kanak Chanpa Chakma, Kafil Ahmed, Saifuddin Ahmed, Qayyum Chowdhury, Rashid Choudhury, Quamrul Hassan, Rafiqun Nabi and Syed Jahangir, among others. Novera Ahmed and Nitun Kundu were the country's pioneers of modernist sculpture.

In recent times, photography as a medium of art has become popular. Biennial Chobi Mela is considered the largest photography festival in Asia.[301]

Museums and libraries

Main articles: Museums in Bangladesh and List of libraries in Bangladesh

The Varendra Research Museum in Rajshahi, maintained by Rajashi University[302]

Established in 1910, the Varendra Research Museum is the oldest museum in Bangladesh.[302][303] It houses important collections from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, including the sculptures of the Pala-Sena School of Art and the Indus Valley civilisation, and Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian manuscripts and inscriptions.[304][305]

The Ahsan Manzil, the former residence of the Nawab of Dhaka, is a national museum housing collections from the British Raj.[305][306]

Bangladesh National Museum in Dhaka

The Tajhat Palace Museum preserves artifacts of the rich cultural heritage of North Bengal, including Hindu-Buddhist sculptures and Islamic manuscripts. The Mymensingh Museum houses the personal antique collections of Bengali aristocrats in central Bengal. The Ethnological Museum of Chittagong showcases the lifestyle of various tribes in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh National Museum is located in Shahbagh, Dhaka, and has a rich collection of antiquities. The Liberation War Museum documents the Bangladeshi struggle for independence and the 1971 genocide.[307]

The Hussain Shahi dynasty established royal libraries during the Bengal Sultanate. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the Zamindar gentry during the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th century. The trend of establishing libraries continued until the beginning of World War II. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, the Jessore Institute Public Library, and the Barisal Public Library.

The Northbrook Hall Public Library was established in Dhaka in 1882 in honour of Lord Northbrook, the Governor-General. Other libraries inaugurated in the British period included the Victoria Public Library, Natore (1901), the Sirajganj Public Library (1882), the Rajshahi Public Library (1884), the Comilla Birchandra Library (1885), the Shah Makhdum Institute Public Library, Rajshahi (1891), the Noakhali Town Hall Public Library (1896), the Prize Memorial Library, Sylhet (1897), the Chittagong Municipality Public Library (1904) and the Varendra Research Library (1910). The Great Bengal Library Association was formed in 1925.[308] The Central Public Library of Dhaka was established in 1959. The National Library of Bangladesh was established in 1972. The World Literature Centre, founded by Ramon Magsaysay Award winner Abdullah Abu Sayeed, is noted for operating numerous mobile libraries across Bangladesh and was awarded the UNESCO Jon, Amos Comenius Medal.[309]

Literature

Main article: Bangladeshi literature

Syed Mujtaba Ali

Bengali literature is a millennium-old tradition; the Charyapadas are the earliest examples of Bengali poetry. Sufi spiritualism inspired many Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian works. Sultans of Bengal patronized Bengali literature. Examples include the writings of Maladhar Basu, Bipradas Pipilai, Vijay Gupta, and Yasoraj Khan. The Chandidas are notable lyric poets from the early Medieval Age. Syed Alaol was the bard of Middle Bengali literature. The Bengal Renaissance shaped modern Bengali literature, including novels, short stories, and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature and is described as the Bengali Shakespeare.[310] Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused political rebellion against colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya is regarded as the pioneer feminist writer of Bangladesh.[311] Other renaissance icons included Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. The writer Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan Bengali worldview.[312] Jasimuddin was a renowned pastoral poet. Shamsur Rahman and Al Mahmud are considered two of the greatest Bengali poets to have emerged in the 20th century. Farrukh Ahmad, Sufia Kamal, Syed Ali Ahsan, Ahsan Habib, Abul Hussain, Shahid Qadri, Fazal Shahabuddin, Abu Zafar Obaidullah, Omar Ali, Al Mujahidi, Syed Shamsul Huq, Nirmalendu Goon, Abid Azad, Hasan Hafizur Rahman and Abdul Hye Sikder are important figures of modern Bangladeshi poetry. Ahmed Sofa is regarded as the most important Bangladeshi intellectual in the post-independence era. Humayun Ahmed was a popular writer of modern Bangladeshi magical realism and science fiction. Notable writers of Bangladeshi fictions include Mir Mosharraf Hossain, Akhteruzzaman Elias, Alauddin Al Azad, Shahidul Zahir, Rashid Karim, Mahmudul Haque, Syed Waliullah, Shahidullah Kaiser, Shawkat Osman, Selina Hossain, Shahed Ali, Razia Khan, Anisul Hoque, and Abdul Mannan Syed.

The annual Ekushey Book Fair and Dhaka Literature Festival, organised by the Bangla Academy, are among the enormous literary festivals in South Asia.

Women

Main article: Women in Bangladesh

See also: Gender inequality in Bangladesh

Further information: Child marriage in Bangladesh

Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain

Although as of 2015, several women occupied a key political office in Bangladesh, its women continue to live under a patriarchal social regime where violence is common.[313] Whereas in India and Pakistan, women participate less in the workforce as their education increases, the reverse is the case in Bangladesh.[313]

Bengal has a long history of feminist activism dating back to the 19th century. Begum Rokeya and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani played an important role in emancipating Bengali Muslim women from purdah, before the country's division, as well as promoting girls' education. Several women were elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly in the British Raj. The first women's magazine, Begum, was published in 1948.

In 2008, Bangladeshi female workforce participation stood at 26%.[313] According to a report published by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics in March 2023, the female labour force participation rate has reached to 42.68%.[314] in 2022 Women dominate blue collar jobs in the Bangladeshi garment industry. Agriculture, social services, healthcare, and education are chosen occupations for Bangladeshi women, while their employment in white collar positions has steadily increased.

Performing arts

A Baul playing the ektara at Lalon Shah's shrine in Kushtia

Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms with a history dating back to the 4th century CE.[315] It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra-personae forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and processional forms.[315] The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre. The dance traditions of Bangladesh include indigenous tribal and Bengali dance forms, as well as classical Indian dances, including the Kathak, Odissi and Manipuri dances.

The music of Bangladesh features the Baul mystical tradition, listed by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Intangible Cultural Heritage.[316] Fakir Lalon Shah popularised Baul music in the country in the 18th century and it has since been one of the most popular music genres in the country since then. Most modern Bauls are devoted to Lalon Shah.[317] Numerous lyric-based musical traditions, varying from one region to the next, exist, including Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Folk music is accompanied by a one-stringed instrument known as the ektara. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. Bengali classical music includes Tagore songs and Nazrul Sangeet. Bangladesh has a rich tradition of Indian classical music, which uses instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod, and santoor.[318] Sabina Yasmin and Runa Laila were considered the leading playback singers in the 1990s, while musicians such as Ayub Bachchu and James are credited with popularising rock music in Bangladesh.[319][320]

Media and cinema

Main articles: Media of Bangladesh and Cinema of Bangladesh

Anwar Hossain playing Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, in the 1967 film Nawab Sirajuddaulah

The Bangladeshi press is diverse and privately owned. Over 200 newspapers are published in the country. Bangladesh Betar is a state-run radio service.[321] The British Broadcasting Corporation operates the popular BBC Bangla news and current affairs service. Bengali broadcasts from Voice of America are also very popular. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the state-owned television network, operating two main television stations broadcast from Dhaka and Chittagong, alongside a satellite service known as BTV World. Around forty privately owned television networks, including several news channels, are also broadcast in the country.[322] Freedom of the media remains a major concern due to government attempts at censorship and the harassment of journalists.[323]

The cinema of Bangladesh dates back to 1898 when films began screening at the Crown Theatre in Dhaka. The Dhaka Nawab Family patronised the production of several silent films in the 1920s and 30s. In 1931, the East Bengal Cinematograph Society released the first full-length feature film in Bangladesh, titled Last Kiss. The first feature film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh, was released in 1956. During the 1960s, 25–30 films were produced annually in Dhaka. By the 2000s, Bangladesh produced 80–100 films a year. While the Bangladeshi film industry has achieved limited commercial success, the country has produced notable independent filmmakers. Zahir Raihan was a prominent documentary maker assassinated in 1971. Tareque Masud is regarded as one of Bangladesh's outstanding directors.[324][325] Masud was honoured by FIPRESCI at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival for his film The Clay Bird. Tanvir Mokammel, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki, Humayun Ahmed, Alamgir Kabir, Chashi Nazrul Islam and Sohanur Rahman Sohan, who was best known in Dhallywood for directing romantic films.[326] His film Ananta Bhalobasha released in 1999 marked a turning point in Bangladeshi cinema by introducing Shakib Khan, who is now one of the biggest superstars in the industry,[327] are some of the prominent directors of Bangladeshi cinema. Bangladesh has a very active film society culture. It started in 1963 in Dhaka. Now around 40 Film Societies are active all over Bangladesh. Federation of Film Societies of Bangladesh is the parent organisation of the film society movement of Bangladesh. Active film societies include the Rainbow Film Society, Children's Film Society, Moviyana Film Society, and Dhaka University Film Society.[citation needed]

Textiles

See also: Textile arts of Bangladesh and Muslin trade in Bengal

A garments factory

The Nakshi Kantha is a centuries-old embroidery tradition for quilts, said to be indigenous to eastern Bengal (Bangladesh). The sari is the national dress for Bangladeshi women. Mughal Dhaka was renowned for producing the finest muslin saris, as well as the famed Dhakai and Jamdani, the weaving of which is listed by UNESCO as one of the masterpieces of humanity's intangible cultural heritage.[328] Bangladesh also produces the Rajshahi silk. The shalwar kameez is also widely worn by Bangladeshi women. In urban areas, some women can be seen in Western clothing. The kurta and sherwani are the national dress of Bangladeshi men; the lungi and dhoti are worn in informal settings. Aside from ethnic wear, domestically tailored suits and neckties are customarily worn by the country's men in offices, in schools, and at social events.

The handloom industry supplies 60–65% of the country's clothing demand.[329] The Bengali ethnic fashion industry has flourished. The retailer Aarong is one of South Asia's most successful ethnic wear brands. The development of the Bangladesh textile industry, which supplies leading international brands, has promoted the local production and retail of modern Western attire. The country now has several expanding local brands like Westecs and Yellow. Bangladesh is the world's second-largest garment exporter. Among Bangladesh's fashion designers, Bibi Russell has received international acclaim for her "Fashion for Development" shows.[330]

Cuisine

Main article: Bangladeshi cuisine

Further information: Bengali cuisine

Kala bhuna, a popular beef dish from Chittagong Division

Rohu curry, a popular fish-based dish

Chicken pilaf (Morog Polao), a traditional dish from Old Dhaka

Bangladeshi cuisine, formed by its geographic location and climate, is rich and diverse; sharing its culinary heritage with the neighbouring Indian state of West Bengal.[331]: 14  The staple dish is white rice, which along with fish, forms the culinary base. Varieties of leaf vegetables, potatoes, gourds and lentils (dal) also play an important role. Curries of beef, mutton, chicken and duck are commonly consumed,[332] along with multiple types of bhortas (mashed vegetables),[333] bhajis (stir fried vegetables) and tarkaris (curried vegetables).[331]: 8  Mughal-influenced dishes include kormas, kalias, biryanis, pulaos, teharis and khichuris.[332]

Among the various used spices, turmeric, fenugreek, nigella, coriander, anise, cardamom and chili powder are widely used; a famous spice mix is the panch phoron. Condiments and herbs used include red onions, green chillies, garlic, ginger, cilantro, and mint.[331]: 12  Coconut milk, mustard paste, mustard seeds, mustard oil, ghee, achars[332] and chutneys are also widely used in the cuisine.[331]: 13–14 

Fish is the main source of protein, owing to the country's riverine geography, and it is often enjoyed with its roe. The hilsa is the national fish and is immensely popular; a famous dish is shorshe ilish. Other highly consumed fishes include rohu, pangas, and tilapia.[334] Lobsters, shrimps and dried fish (shutki) also play an important role, with the chingri malai curry being a famous shrimp dish.[331]: 8  In Chittagong, famous dishes include kala bhuna and mezban, the latter being a traditionally popular feast, featuring the serving of mezbani gosht, a hot and spicy beef curry.[331]: 10 [332][335] In Sylhet, the shatkora lemons are used to marinate dishes, a notable one is beef hatkora.[335] Among the tribal communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, cooking with bamboo shoots is popular.[336] Khulna is renowned for using chui jhal (piper chaba) in its meat-based dishes.[335][332]

Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts, including distinctive sweets such as the rôshogolla, roshmalai, chomchom, sondesh, mishti doi and kalojaam, and jilapi.[337] Pithas are traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits.[338] Halwa, shemai and falooda, the latter two being a variation of vermicelli; are popular desserts during religious festivities.[339][340][341] Ruti, naan, paratha, luchi and bakarkhani are the main local breads.[342][332] Hot milk tea is the most commonly consumed beverage in the country, being at the centre of group conversations.[343] Borhani, mattha and lassi are popular traditionally consumed beverages.[344][345] Kebabs are widely popular, particularly seekh kebab, chapli kebab, shami kebab, chicken tikka and shashlik, along with various types of chaaps.[332] Popular street foods include chotpoti, jhal muri, shingara,[346] samosa and fuchka.[347]

Holidays and festivals

Main articles: Public holidays in Bangladesh and List of festivals in Bangladesh

Pahela Baishakh, the Bengali new year, is the major festival of Bengali culture and sees widespread festivities. Of the major holidays celebrated in Bangladesh, only Pahela Baishakh comes without any pre-existing expectations (specific religious identity, a culture of gift-giving, etc.) and has become an occasion for celebrating the simpler, rural roots of Bengal. Other cultural festivals include Nabonno and Poush Parbon, Bengali harvest festivals.[348]

A fair in Comilla

The Muslim festivals of Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Mawlid, Muharram, Chand Raat, Shab-e-Barat; the Hindu festivals of Durga Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra; the Buddhist festival of Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, and the Christian festival of Christmas are national holidays in Bangladesh and see the most widespread celebrations in the country. The two Eids are celebrated with a long streak of public holidays and allow celebrating the festivals with their families outside the city.[348]

Alongside national days like the remembrance of 21 February 1952 Language Movement Day (declared as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO in 1999),[349] Independence Day and Victory Day. On Language Movement Day, people congregate at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to remember the national heroes of the Bengali Language Movement. Similar gatherings are observed at the National Martyrs' Memorial on Independence Day and Victory Day on 26 March and 16 December respectively to remember the national heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War.[350]

Sports

Main article: Sports in Bangladesh

Bangladesh cricket team

In rural Bangladesh, several traditional indigenous sports such as Kabaddi, Boli Khela, Lathi Khela and Nouka Baich remain fairly popular. While Kabaddi is the national sport,[351] Cricket is the most popular sport in the country. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999 and the following year was granted Test cricket status. Bangladesh reached the quarter-final of the 2015 Cricket World Cup, the semi-final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy and they reached the final of the Asia Cup 3 times – in 2012, 2016, and 2018. Shakib Al Hasan is widely regarded as one of the greatest all-rounders in the history of the sport.[352] On 9 February 2020, the Bangladesh national under-19 cricket team won the men's Under-19 Cricket World Cup, which was the country's first World Cup victory.[353][354] The Bangladesh national under-19 cricket team also won the U-19 Asia cup in 2023 and 2024 consecutively.[355][356] In 2018, the Bangladesh women's national cricket team won the 2018 Women's Twenty20 Asia Cup defeating India women's national cricket team in the final.[357]

Bangladesh football team

Football is the second-most popular sport in Bangladesh, following cricket.[358] The first instance of a national football team was the emergence of the Shadhin Bangla Team during the liberation war of 1971.[359] On 25 July 1971, the team's captain, Zakaria Pintoo, became the first person to hoist the Bangladesh flag on foreign land before their match in neighboring India.[360] Following independence, the national football team participated in the AFC Asian Cup (1980), becoming only the second South Asian team to do so.[361] Bangladesh's most notable achievements in football include the 2003 SAFF Gold Cup and 1999 South Asian Games. The Bangladesh women's national football team won the SAFF Women's Championship consecutively in 2022 and 2024.[362]

Bangladesh archers Ety Khatun and Roman Sana won several gold medals winning all the 10 archery events (both individual and team events) in the 2019 South Asian Games.[363] The National Sports Council regulates 42 sporting federations.[364] Chess is very popular in Bangladesh. Bangladesh has five grandmasters in chess. Among them, Niaz Murshed was the first grandmaster in South Asia.[365] In 2010, mountain climber Musa Ibrahim became the first Bangladeshi climber to conquer Mount Everest.[366] Wasfia Nazreen is the first Bangladeshi climber to climb the Seven Summits.[367]

See also